If several properties belonging to several persons are mortgaged to secure a debt due to taking of a loan, the law says that each property should contribute towards the debt in proportion to its value. This is called the doctrine of contribution.

b) State the rule related to consideration in a lease agreement as given in the definition of lease.

The consideration for lease is either premium or rent, which is the price paid or promised in consideration of the demise. The premium is the consideration paid of being let in possession, such as Salami, even if it is to be paid in instalments.

c) State the rule relating to notice of transfer of actionable claim

• The notice of transfer of the actionable claim has to be made in writing.
• It must be signed by the transferor or his agent authorised on his behalf.
• However, if the transferor refuses to sign it, then, in that case, it must be signed by the transferee of actionable claim or his duly authorised agent.

d) What is meant by accession to mortgaged property and who has right over it?

Under Section 70 of TOPA if, after the date of a mortgage, any accession is made to the mortgaged property, the mortgagee, in the absence of a contract to the contrary, shall, for the purposes of the security, be entitled to such accession.

Illustrations

(a) A mortgages to B a certain field bordering on a river. The field is increased by alluvion. For the purposes of his security, B is entitled to the increase.

(b) A mortgages a certain plot of building land to B and afterwards erects a house on the plot. For the purposes of his security, B is entitled to the house as well as the. plot.

e) State three methods of acquisition of easement

There are several methods by which easements may be acquired. They are:

• Express grant
• Implied grant
• Presumed grant
• Acquisition by prescription
• Customary easement
• Transfer of dominant heritage
• Imputed grant Statute

f) Explain the doctrine of feeding the grant by estoppel

Feeding grant by estoppel means the grant by an incompetent person who makes the other believe that he is competent. The estoppel is fed when the incapacity is removed and he is estopped from claiming his incompetency at the time of initial transfer.

g) What is the meaning of transfer in TOPA

Under Section 5 of TOPA “transfer of property” means an act by which a living person conveys property, in present or in future, to one or more other living persons, or to himself, or to himself and one or more other living persons; and “to transfer property” is to perform such act.

h) What are restrictive covenants?

A restrictive covenant is a promise included in a legal agreement that prevents one party to the contract from taking a specific action. When a party enters into a restrictive covenant, he/she agrees to refrain from doing something or from using a property in a certain way that is restricted by the contract.

i) What does expression attached to the earth means in TOPA

Section 3 “attached to the earth” means—

1. rooted in the earth, as in the case of trees and shrubs;
2. imbedded in the earth, as in the case of walls or buildings; or
3. attached to what is so imbedded for the permanent beneficial enjoyment of that to which it is attached;

j) What is meant by clog on the right to redemption?

Section 60 states about the right and explains about the things which are to be returned to mortgagor on payment of money. The mortgagor in any case cannot be deprived of his right. Any such condition that restricts the mortgagor from redeeming his property back from the mortgagee is known as Clog on Redemption.

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Town planning is the process of managing land resources. It involves the control of existing and new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. It is a dynamic process that changes in response to policy, development proposals and local needs. The need of town planning has been arisen due to the rising health issues because of overpopulation, poor sanitation, and pollution.

Defining Town Planning:

According to John T. Howard, “Town planning is the guidance of the growth and change of urban areas. As such, it is aimed at fulfilling social and economic objectives which go beyond in physical form, and arrangement of buildings, streets, parks, utilities and other patterns of urban development”.

According to Thomas Adam, “Town planning is the art of planning the physical development of urban communities with the general object of security, healthy and safe living and working conditions, providing efficient and convenient forms of circulation and advancing the general public welfare. It aims at the preservation of natural beauty as essential to healthy living conditions, and leads to the promotion of beauty in building as a by-product of sound social and economic growth”.

According to Lewis Mumford, “City planning involves the co-ordination of human activities in time and space, on the basis of known facts about place, work and people. It involves the modification and co-relation of various elements in the total environment for the purpose of increasing their service to the community, and it calls for the building of appropriate structure, dwellings, industrial plants, markets, water works, drains, bridges, villages, cities to house the activities of community to assist the performance of all its needful functions in a timely and orderly fashion”.

History of Town Planning:

Indian Scholar and ancient economist in his book on economics “Koutiliya Arthashastra” said that that the cities should be freed from the excess population and some population should be resettled in new built towns. People should be encouraged to settle in these new towns.

The Indo-Gangetic region formed the cradle of Indus valley civilization about 5000 years ago. Harappan city sites, including Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan, and Surkotada are the examples of town planning. The orientation of streets and buildings are according to the cardinal directions east-west, and north-south. The building materials used were mud-bricks and kiln-fired-bricks, wood and reeds. The excavation revealed existence of private houses, large houses surrounded by smaller units, large public structures, and public utility structures like great baths, drains, etc.

China has a tradition of urban planning dating back thousands of years. The Mesopotamians, Minoans (Romans) and Egyptians used concept of town planning in the 8th century BC.

Problems faced due to not planning for towns:

• Lack of essential amenities like electricity, water supply and drainage.
• Uncontrolled development of the town.
• Unhealthy conditions
• Development of slums.
• Defective road system resulting in the formation of narrow streets and lanes.
• Heavy traffic congestions during the peak of hours of working period.
• Haphazard location of some industrial units of small and medium scale.
• Inadequate open spaces for parks and playgrounds.
• Noisy atmosphere in some localities.
• Waste disposal problems.
• Housing problems.
•  Lack of public awareness for Community benefits and exploiting means of amenities and utility service facilities provided by the concerned authorities.
• Lack of engineering infrastructure.
• Inadequate ware houses and industrial sites.
• Defective locations of schools.
• Inadequate space on the main roads for footpath and town squares, circles, etc.

Objectives of Town Planning:

To help city to grow:

Many countries are confronted with an alarming growth of population, excessive urbanization and metropolitization. The growth pattern of urban settlements is in imbalance. Bulk of the urban population is concentrated in a few large cities, most of them capitals of the countries and a few business hubs. Town planning helps in making early plans to accommodate the increase in the population. During town planning certain factors like the needs of citizens (residential, leisure, and healthcare), and needed infrastructure (roads, good transportation, law enforcing agencies) should be considered.

To improve quality of life:

Only increase in GDP or standard of living doesn’t mean human development. For complete development of people, there should be improvement in their quality of life. A care is taken by town planners for the proper distribution of land, public spaces, traffic regulations, collection and disposal of garbage, and the infrastructures. It also helps in creating better and efficient health care system.

To Predict Disaster:

Town planning helps the citizens as well as the visitors safe from all possible disasters by predicting possible natural calamities like water logging, tsunamis, storms, and cyclones. Thus risk is minimized.

To improve Economy of the Nation:

Town planning provides better facilities by lowering the cost of living. It improves the economic activity in the country. It improves job potential. It allows the local bodies to accept the migrated population effectively. The rural areas are utilized to bring economic growth to the city. This improves the economy of the nation.

Scope of Town Planning:

• the orderly arrangement of the city’s residential, commercial and administrative divisions in such a manner that each part could function without much overlapping;
• an efficient system of roads connecting different parts of the town, and the town with the outside world;
• the provision of safe, sanitary and comfortable housing in a variety of dwelling types to meet the needs of all types of families;
• the provision of recreation, schools and other community services of a high standard; and
• the provision of adequate water supply, public utilities, and services.

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mRNA or Messenger RNA:

The mRNA molecule is always simple and straight without any fold and is transcribed from one strand of DNA. It constitutes 3 to 5 % of total RNA. It carries the base sequence complementary to the DNA template strand.

A base sequence of three nucleotides on mRNA is called a codon. Ribosomes translate these triplet codons into the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide chain to form proteins. This is called mRNA language or genetic code or cryptograms because they carry coded information for the synthesis of a particular protein.

It has two ends 5′ end and 3′ end. The codon present at 5′ end is called start codon or initiation codon. It is usually AUG, in some cases, it may be GUG. The codon at 3′ end is called stop codon or terminator codon or nonsense codon. It is either UAA, UAG or UGA. Each codon specifies a specific amino acid. End codon does not specify any amino acid, hence they are referred as nonsense codons.

Length of mRNA:

The length of mRNA depends upon the length of the polypeptide chain it Codes for. Polypeptide length varies from a chain of a few amino acids to thousands of amino acids. The message is read in the groups of three consecutive bases from a fixed starting point up to a fixed stopping point.

Life Span of mRNA:

In bacteria, mRNA is transcribed and translated in a single cellular compartment and the two processes are so closely linked that they occur simultaneously.

Transcription begins when the enzyme RNA polymerase binds to DNA and then moves along making a copy of one strand. As soon as the transcription begins, the ribosomes attach to the 5′ end (free end) of the mRNA and start translation while the other end of mRNA is still under synthesis. This is known as coupled transcription and translation in prokaryotes.

After the translation of the whole of mRNA is completed, the mRNA is then degraded in 5′ → 3′ direction. The mRNA is synthesized, translated and degraded all in rapid succession and all in 5′ → 3′ direction. An individual mRNA molecule survives only for a minute or less.

In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus while translation takes place in the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic mRNA is quite stable and survives from a few minutes to more than a day. In mammalian RBC, through the nucleus is lost, mRNA continues to produce haemoglobin for many days.

Coding and Non-coding Regions:

All mRNAs have two types of regions. The coding region consists of a series of codons. But the mRNA is longer than the coding regions. The length of newly synthesized mRNA is much larger than the length of mRNA used for translation. The coding regions are called exons. Between the coding regions lie various non-coding regions called introns. Genes with these intervening sequences are called Split genes or Interrupted genes.

rRNA or Ribosomal RNA:

Most of the RNA of the cell is in the form of ribosomal RNA which constitutes about 80% of the total RNA. Ribosomes consist of many types of rRNA. It is a single-stranded structure which is variously folded upon itself. In the folded region, it may show a pairing between complementary bases. It remains associated with ribosomes permanently. It provides a proper binding site for m-RNA by orienting the mRNA molecule so that all codons can be read perfectly.

The rRNA molecules form the secondary structure of double-stranded stems and single-stranded loops by extensive complementary base pairings. The rRNA plays a major role in protein synthesis. They interact with mRNA and tRNA at each step of translation or protein synthesis.

The 3′ terminus of rRNA of 16S rRNA interacts with the initiation site on mRNA which is called Shine-Dalgarno sequence and lies just before the start codon AUG.

The 23S rRNA plays an active role in peptidyl transferase activity. Movement of tRNA between A and P site on the ribosome is aided by 23 S rRNA.

The rRNA molecules form complexes with specific proteins in ribosomes. The RNA- protein complexes are called ribonucleoproteins (RNP).

tRNA or Transfer RNA:

The tRNA molecule is single-stranded and constitutes 10 to 20 % of total RNA. It is the smallest of all the RNA types. t-RNA is also called s-RNA soluble RNA because it can not be easily separated even by ultracentrifugation techniques. It delivers amino acids to the ribosome and decodes the information of mRNA. Each nucleotide triplet codon on mRNA represents an amino acid. The tRNA plays the role of an adaptor and matches each codon to its particular amino acid in the cytoplasmic pool. The structure of t-RNA is explained by two models

Clover Leaf Structure of tRNA:

The tRNA due to its property of having stretches of complementary base pairs forms the secondary structure, which is in the form of a cloverleaf.

Several regions of the single-stranded molecule form double-stranded stems or arms and single-stranded loops due to the folding of various regions of the molecule. These double-stranded stems have complementary base pairs. A typical tRNA has bases numbering from 1-76, using the standard numbering convention where position 1 is the 5′ end and 76 is the 3′ end.

• Amino acid arm: It has a seven base pairs stem formed by base pairing between 5′ and 3′ ends of tRNA. At 3′ end a sequence of 5′-CCA-3′ is added. This is called CCA arm or amino acid acceptor arm. Amino acid binds to this arm during protein synthesis.
• D-arm:
• Going from 5′ to 3′ direction or anticlockwise direction, the next arm is D-arm. It has a 3 to 4 base pair stem and a loop called D-loop or DHU-loop. It contains a modified base dihydrouracil.
• Anticodon arm: Next Topic is the arm which lies opposite to the acceptor arm. It has a five base pair stem and a loop in which there are three adjacent nucleotides called anticodon which is complementary to the codon of mRNA.
• An extra arm: Next Topic lies an extra arm which consists of 3-21 bases. Depending upon the length, extra arms are of two types, small extra arm with 3-5 bases and other a large arm having 13-21 bases.
• T-arm or TψC arm:
• It has a modified base pseudouridine ψ. It has a five base pair stem with a loop.

There are about 50 different types of modified bases in different tRNAs, but four bases are more common. One is ribothymidine which contains thymine which is not found in RNA. Other modified bases are pseudouridine ψ, dihyrouridine, and inosine.

Hair Pin Structure of tRNA:

Some RNAs are Enzymes:

Recently it has been discovered that some RNAs play the role of enzymes, they are called ribozymes. Like typical enzymes, a ribozyme has an active site, a binding site for substrate and a binding site for a co-factor. Ribozymes are mainly involved in the splicing of introns present on RNA molecules.

Small Nuclear RNAs:

RNA polymerase enzyme transcribes several small RNAs in the nucleus of eukaryotes. These are called small nuclear RNAs (snRNA). These form complex with specific proteins and are called small nuclear ribonuclear proteins (snRNP) also known as snurps. The proteins associated with snRNAs are called S proteins.

These sn RNAs are rich in uracil and are of several types i.e., U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6. Each of these RNAs is between 200-300 nucleotides long. They are involved in the splicing of group II introns. They form a complex with an intron. This complex is called spliceosome which is involved in splicing of the intron.

These snRNP molecules contain small RNA sequences which are complementary to the introns of mRNA and form RNA-RNA base pairs at 5′ and 3′ splice sites where actual splice reaction occurs.

Small Nucleolar RNA (sno RNA):

This snall RNA is required for the processing of eukaryotic rRNA molecules. The snoRNAs are associated with proteins. These snoRNAs are present in the nucleolus where the processing of rRNA takes place. Ribosome is also assembled in the nucleolus.

Many small RNAs like micro RNAs (miRNAs), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) play their role in the silencing of genes. They act on mRNA resulting in the disruption of translation.

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The gastric glands are numerous, simple or branched tubular glands present in the mucosa of the stomach. They are located in different regions of the stomach. Gastric glands secrete digestive juice and mucus. There are three types of gastric glands, distinguished from one another by location and type of secretion. The cardiac gastric glands are located at the very beginning of the stomach; the intermediate, or true, gastric glands in the central stomach areas; and the pyloric glands in the terminal stomach portion. The cardiac and pyloric glands secrete mucus, which coats the stomach and protects it from self-digestion by helping to dilute acids and enzymes. The intermediate gastric glands produce most of the digestive substances secreted by the stomach.

Cells of Gastric Glands:

Chief or Peptic (Zymogen) Cells:

These cells secrete two proenzymes: Pepsinogen and prorennin and enzymes gastric lipase and gastric amylase. As these cells produce proenzymes they are called zymogen. Zymogen means an inactive substance which is converted into an enzyme when activated by another enzyme.

Oxyntic (Parietal) Cells:

These cells secrete HCl and Castle’s intrinsic factor which helps in the absorption of vitamin B12. These cells are located in the gastric glands found in the lining of the fundus and cardia of the stomach.  These cells contain an extensive secretory network called canaliculi

Globlet or Mucous Cells:

These cells secrete mucous.

Argentaffin Cells:

These cells secrete serotonin. It stimulates the constriction of smooth muscles.

Endocrine Cells or Gastrin Cells or G Cells: 

They have a distinctive microscopic appearance and found in the pyloric gastric antrum; their nuclei are centrally located in the cell. They are found in the middle portion of the gastric glands. They secrete gastrin that stimulates the secretion of enzymes and HCl from gastric glands.

Gastric Juice:

Gastric juice is made up of water, electrolytes, hydrochloric acid, enzymes, mucus, and intrinsic factor. Its daily secretion is 2 to 3 litres per day. Its pH is 1.2 to 1.8. The constituents of gastric juice are

• Hydrochloric acid: It is a strong acid secreted by the parietal cells, and it lowers the stomach’s pH. It forms 0.05 to 0.3 % of gastric juice. Hydrochloric acid converts pepsinogen into pepsin and breaks various nutrients apart from the food. It also kills bacteria/germs that come along with the food.
• Pepsinogen: It is secreted by chief cells. In the presence of hydrochloric acid, it is converted to active pepsin. Pepsin breaks apart tertiary and secondary protein structures to make it easier for the digestive enzymes in the small intestines to work further.
• Gastric lipase: It is a digestive enzyme made by the chief cells. It helps break down short and medium-chain fats.
• Amylase: It is not produced by the stomach. This enzyme comes from saliva and travels along with the bolus into the stomach. Amylase breaks down carbohydrates. The activity of amylase in the stomach stops shortly due to the acidic environment in the stomach.
• Intrinsic factor: It is secreted by parietal cells and is necessary for the absorption of vitamin B-12. This vitamin is essential for a healthy nervous system function and blood cell production.
• Mucus: It is secreted by the neck cells or mucous cells and helps coat and protect your stomach lining from the acid environment.

Science > Biology > Digestion and absorption in Human > Gastric Glands

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Need for Organizational Transformation:

• To be flexible, effective and efficient.
• To have a customer-centric approach to organizational activities.
• To create a more productive environment by recognition of current strengths.
• To understand and position themselves to reap the benefits of competitive technology and business alignments.
• To promote an integrated business approach

Sources of Need for Organizational Transformation:

External Sources:

External pressures come from many areas, including customers, competition, changing government regulations, shareholders, financial markets, and other factors in the organization’s external environment.

• New Technology: Technology expands the opportunities for firms to offer not only new products but also new processes. Technological advancements and innovations in communication and computer technology, have revolutionized organizational functioning. New products may create opportunities to expand the business, improvement in productivity and quality. Thus to remain competitive in the market, the organization has to Identify new technology and more efficient and economical methods to perform the task. Thus to accommodate new technology, the organization has to undergo an organizational transformation.
• Economic Environment: Every business has to work with competitors, suppliers, stakeholders, and has to deal with different interest rates, unemployment rates, income settlement, credit policy, gross domestic product, inflation, recession, tax policy, the level of international trade, etc. The organization has to undergo a transformation to cope with these factors. A change in the global market, economies create a ripple-like effect and affect the Indian markets leading to fluctuations in the capital markets, employment opportunities, and rise or fall in the consumer demand.
• Socio-Cultural Environment: Changes in the needs of the customers are compelling the organizations to adapt and innovate their product offerings constantly for meeting the changing demands of the customers. Every society has different sociocultural characteristics based on the region, ethnics, beliefs, settlement, etc.  With the change in the values, habits, norms, attitudes and demographic characteristics of society the consumption pattern of society changes. These factors have a high influence on the organization. Thus every organization has to undergo transformation to adjust to the socio-economic environment.
• Political factors: Governmental regulations and the extent of the intervention of the government may influence the need for change. Political factors creating the need for organizational transformation are regulations, deregulations, foreign exchange policy, protectionism, antitrust laws, etc. In India when a political decision of currency ban was taken, many small businesses suffered because they were not ready for such a change and most of their transactions were in cash.
• Pressure of Competition and Globalization: Due to the development of communication systems and ease of transport between different countries the world has become a global village. Due to globalization, multinational companies have entered a new market. It creates a competitive pressure which forces the organizations to change their strategies for remaining in the domestic market and to ensure their global presence. To remain competitive in market Japanese majors like Toyota, Mitsubishi, and Suzuki started their manufacturing and assembling units in India and other southeast Asian countries due to reduced labour cost and economies of scale.

Internal Factors:

• Management Change: One of the most frequent reasons for major changes in an organization is the change of executives at the top and no two managers have the same styles, skills, and philosophies. Thus a new manager can impact strategy and corporate culture. He may favour different organizational design, objectives procedures and policies than a predecessor. Understanding the risks associated with hiring (or promoting for) new upper management is key to making a good decision on the best fit.
• People: Changes in the work climate at an organization can also stimulate change. Employees are the human capital of the organization. An organization without a motivated and dedicated workforce will not be able to perform at its best. If the workforce is lethargic, unmotivated, and dissatisfied then the productivity of the organization is less. To increase productivity the organizational environment should be changed. This change includes employee training, reorientation, replacement, establishing new recruitment policies and procedures.
• Organizational Structure: The organizational structure defines and scopes the authority and hierarchy in the company. The organizational structure should change over time to cope with the change in the internal and external environment. The clear hierarchy and flow of work increase productivity. Structural changes can be regarded as a strategic move on the part of the organization’s to improve profitability and for achieving a cost advantage.
• Crisis: A crisis may also stimulate change in an organization. Strikes or lockouts may lead management to change the wage structure or employee policy.  Thus the crisis causes the company to rethink the composition of its management team and its role in the organization. The ability of the organization to successfully employ strategies to manage such a crisis is what differentiates an organization that is able to manage the instability state of affairs.
• Resources: Inadequacy of the resources, may result in a powerful change force for the organization.

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