List of Sub-Topics:

• Nutrition and Metabolism
• Digestive System
• Food Science and Technology
• Nutritional Science and Health
• Food Production
• Food Safety and Public Health

Biology and food are intricately linked disciplines that explore the relationship between living organisms and the nutrients they consume for growth, development, and energy. Here are some key aspects of how biology relates to food:

Nutrition and Metabolism:

Nutrition and metabolism are two closely related concepts that play crucial roles in human health and physiology. Biology plays a fundamental role in understanding nutrition and metabolism. Nutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals are essential for maintaining health and sustaining life. Biological processes such as digestion, absorption, transport, and cellular metabolism regulate how nutrients are utilized by the body and contribute to overall health and well-being.

• Nutrition refers to the process of obtaining and utilizing nutrients from food for growth, repair, energy, and overall well-being. Nutrients are substances found in food that provide energy, regulate metabolism, and support growth and repair of body tissues. There are six main classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. Each of these nutrients serves specific functions in the body, such as providing energy (carbohydrates, fats), building and repairing tissues (proteins), regulating various biochemical reactions (vitamins, minerals), and maintaining fluid balance (water).
• Metabolism encompasses all the chemical reactions that occur within the body to maintain life. These reactions are divided into two main categories: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolic reactions involve the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. For example, the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids, respectively, is a catabolic process. While, anabolic reactions involve the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input. For instance, the synthesis of proteins from amino acids or the synthesis of new tissue during growth and repair processes is anabolic in nature.
• The metabolism of nutrients occurs through a series of biochemical reactions that take place within cells. These reactions are regulated by hormones, enzymes, and other signalling molecules to ensure that the body’s energy needs are met and that essential nutrients are utilized efficiently. The balance between nutrient intake and metabolism is essential for maintaining optimal health. Imbalances, such as excessive calorie intake leading to weight gain or deficiencies in essential nutrients, can contribute to various health problems, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and nutritional deficiencies.

Understanding nutrition and metabolism is crucial for making informed dietary choices and maintaining overall health and well-being. A balanced diet that provides adequate nutrients while considering individual needs and lifestyle factors is key to supporting optimal metabolism and overall health.

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Digestive System:

The digestive system is a complex biological system responsible for breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the body. The human digestive system is a complex series of organs and structures that work together to break down food into nutrients that can be absorbed by the body and used for energy, growth, and repair. It includes organs such as the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas, each with specific roles in digestion, nutrient absorption, and waste elimination. Understanding the biology of digestion helps explain how different foods are processed and metabolized in the body and how dietary choices impact health outcomes. Here’s an overview of the human digestive system:

• Mouth: Digestion begins in the mouth, where food is broken down into smaller pieces by chewing and mixing with saliva. Saliva contains enzymes (such as amylase) that start the digestion of carbohydrates.
• Oesophagus: The oesophagus is a muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach through a series of coordinated muscle contractions called peristalsis.
• Stomach: In the stomach, food is mixed with gastric juices, which contain hydrochloric acid and enzymes (such as pepsin) that break down proteins. The stomach’s muscular walls churn and mix the food, forming a semi-liquid substance called chyme.
• Small Intestine: The small intestine is where most of the digestion and nutrient absorption take place. It consists of three parts: the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The pancreas and liver secrete digestive enzymes and bile into the duodenum to further break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Villi and microvilli in the small intestine increase its surface area, facilitating the absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream.
• Large Intestine (Colon): The large intestine absorbs water and electrolytes from the undigested food, forming faeces. Beneficial bacteria in the colon also help break down certain nutrients and produce vitamins (e.g., vitamin K and some B vitamins). The colon stores feces until they are eliminated from the body through the anus during defecation.
• Rectum and Anus: The rectum is the final section of the large intestine, where faeces are stored until they are expelled from the body through the anus during defecation.

The digestive system is regulated by neural, hormonal, and local mechanisms to ensure that digestion and absorption occur efficiently. Hormones such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin play key roles in regulating digestive processes. Maintaining a healthy digestive system is important for overall health and well-being. Eating a balanced diet, staying hydrated, getting regular exercise, managing stress, and avoiding smoking and excessive alcohol consumption can help support optimal digestive function. Additionally, seeking medical attention for any digestive symptoms or concerns is important for early diagnosis and treatment of digestive disorders.

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Food Science and Technology:

Food science and technology are interdisciplinary fields that involve the study of the nature of foods, their composition, and the changes that occur in them during processing and storage. These fields combine principles from various disciplines such as chemistry, biology, microbiology, engineering, and nutrition to understand, develop, and improve food products and processes. Food technology involves the development of methods and techniques for processing, preserving, and packaging food to enhance safety, quality, and shelf life. Advances in food science and technology have led to the production of a wide range of processed foods, convenience foods, and functional foods that meet consumer preferences and nutritional needs. Different techniques used are as follows:

• Food scientists analyze the composition of foods to understand their nutritional content, flavour, texture, and shelf life. This involves studying the chemical composition of food components such as carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
• Food processing involves various techniques and methods used to convert raw agricultural products into edible food products. Processing methods include cleaning, sorting, cutting, grinding, mixing, heating, cooling, fermentation, and packaging. The goal of food processing is to improve the safety, quality, and shelf life of food products while preserving their nutritional value and sensory attributes.
• Food preservation techniques are used to extend the shelf life of food products by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms, enzymes, and other factors that cause spoilage. Common methods of food preservation include canning, freezing, drying, salting, smoking, pasteurization, and irradiation.
• Packaging plays a crucial role in food preservation, protection, and presentation. Food packaging materials must be safe, durable, and suitable for the intended use. Packaging also helps prevent contamination, maintain product quality, and provide information to consumers about the contents, nutritional value, and storage instructions of food products.
• Food safety and quality assurance are paramount in the food industry to ensure that food products are safe, wholesome, and free from contaminants, toxins, and adulterants. This involves implementing good manufacturing practices (GMPs), sanitation protocols, quality control measures, and regulatory compliance to meet food safety standards and regulations.
• Food scientists conduct sensory evaluation and consumer studies to assess the sensory attributes (e.g., taste, aroma, texture, and appearance) and consumer preferences of food products. This information is used to optimize product formulations, develop new products, and enhance consumer acceptance and satisfaction.
• Food scientists also study the relationship between diet, nutrition, and health to develop nutritious and functional food products that promote health and well-being. This includes researching the effects of food ingredients, additives, and processing methods on nutritional quality, bioavailability, and physiological functions in the human body.

Thus, food science and technology play vital roles in ensuring the safety, quality, and sustainability of the food supply while meeting the diverse needs and preferences of consumers around the world.

Plants and Animals as Source of Food:

Plants and animals are primary sources of food for humans and other organisms. Understanding the biology of plants and animals helps elucidate the nutritional content, culinary properties, and ecological roles of different foods. Plant biology explores the structure, function, and metabolism of plant tissues, organs, and cells, including edible fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and nuts. Animal biology encompasses the anatomy, physiology, and behaviour of animals used for food production, such as livestock, poultry, fish, and seafood.

Plants as Source of Food:

• Plants are primary producers in the food chain, meaning they convert energy from the sun into organic compounds through photosynthesis.
• They synthesize carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and other essential nutrients that serve as the foundation of the food web.
• Many plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts, and seeds, provide humans and animals with essential nutrients, energy, and dietary fibre.
• Plants also contribute to the diets of herbivorous animals, which feed directly on plant matter for sustenance.

Animals as Source of Food:

Animals serve as a significant source of food for humans and play a crucial role in various diets around the world.

• Animal products are rich sources of high-quality protein, which is essential for building and repairing tissues, as well as for various metabolic functions in the body.
• Animal products such as meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy are rich in essential nutrients including vitamins (such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, and riboflavin), minerals (such as iron, zinc, and calcium), and fatty acids (such as omega-3 fatty acids).
• Animal products contribute to dietary diversity, providing a wide range of flavours, textures, and culinary possibilities in various cuisines around the world.
• In many cultures, the consumption of certain animal products holds cultural and traditional significance, and they are often an integral part of religious ceremonies, festivals, and social gatherings.
• Livestock farming and fisheries are significant sectors of the global economy, providing employment opportunities, income generation, and livelihoods for millions of people worldwide.
• Sustainable animal agriculture practices, such as pasture-based farming, rotational grazing, and aquaculture, can help minimize environmental impacts, conserve natural resources, and promote animal welfare.

The production and consumption of animal products also raise concerns related to environmental sustainability, animal welfare, public health, and ethical considerations. Issues such as greenhouse gas emissions, water usage, deforestation, antibiotic resistance, and animal cruelty are important considerations in the discussion of animal agriculture and food production systems.

In recent years, there has been growing interest in plant-based diets and alternative protein sources as alternatives to traditional animal products. Plant-based proteins, such as legumes, nuts, seeds, and soy products, offer sustainable and environmentally-friendly options for individuals seeking to reduce their consumption of animal products.

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Nutritional Science and Health:

Nutritional science and health are closely intertwined fields that focus on understanding the relationship between diet, nutrition, and overall well-being. Nutritional science investigates the relationship between diet, nutrients, and health outcomes, including the prevention and management of diseases such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers. Research in nutritional biology examines the impact of dietary factors on metabolism, growth, development, immune function, and disease risk. Nutritional guidelines and dietary recommendations are based on scientific evidence derived from epidemiological studies, clinical trials, and experimental research in biology and nutrition.

• Nutritional science examines the role of nutrients in the body, including carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water. It explores how these nutrients are obtained from food, digested, absorbed, and utilized by the body for energy, growth, repair, and various metabolic processes.
• Nutritional science provides evidence-based dietary guidelines and recommendations to promote optimal health and prevent chronic diseases. These guidelines often emphasize the importance of consuming a balanced diet that includes a variety of nutrient-rich foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, lean proteins, and healthy fats.
• Nutritional scientists and healthcare professionals assess individuals’ dietary intake, nutritional status, and health goals to provide personalized nutrition counselling and recommendations. This may involve evaluating nutrient deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances and developing strategies to address them through dietary modifications, supplementation, or lifestyle changes.
• Nutritional science plays a critical role in the prevention and management of various health conditions, including obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and metabolic disorders. Research has shown that dietary factors can influence the risk, progression, and outcomes of these diseases, and targeted nutritional interventions can help mitigate their impact on health.
• Nutritional science aims to promote healthy eating behaviours and habits that support long-term health and well-being. This includes raising awareness about the importance of portion control, mindful eating, meal planning, and food preparation techniques to make nutritious choices more accessible and sustainable.
• Nutritional science informs public health initiatives and policies aimed at improving dietary habits and reducing the burden of diet-related diseases at the population level. This may involve implementing nutrition education programs, food fortification strategies, school meal programs, food labelling regulations, and initiatives to promote food security and access to healthy foods in underserved communities.
• Nutritional science continually advances through research and innovation, exploring emerging topics such as nutrigenomics, the gut microbiome, functional foods, dietary supplements, and personalized nutrition. These areas of inquiry hold promise for unlocking new insights into the complex interactions between diet, genetics, lifestyle, and health outcomes.

Thus, nutritional science is integral to promoting optimal health and well-being across the lifespan, empowering individuals to make informed dietary choices, and addressing the multifaceted challenges and opportunities in the field of nutrition and health.

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Food Production:

Biology plays a crucial role in understanding and improving food production systems. Here’s how biology intersects with food production:

• Understanding the biology of plants is fundamental to agricultural practices. Plant biology includes studying plant anatomy, physiology, genetics, and ecology. This knowledge helps in selecting appropriate crop varieties, optimizing growth conditions, and developing strategies to enhance crop yield and quality.
• Biology contributes to crop improvement through techniques such as selective breeding, hybridization, and genetic engineering. By studying plant genetics and molecular biology, scientists can develop crops with desirable traits such as higher yield, disease resistance, tolerance to environmental stresses, and improved nutritional content.
• Soil is a vital component of food production systems. Soil biology focuses on the study of soil organisms, microbial communities, and nutrient cycling processes. Understanding soil biology helps in maintaining soil fertility, enhancing nutrient availability to plants, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.
• Biology provides insights into the biology and behavior of pests, pathogens, and weeds that can affect crop health and productivity. Integrated pest management (IPM) strategies incorporate biological, cultural, and chemical methods to control pests and diseases while minimizing environmental impact and preserving natural ecosystems.
• Microbiology plays a crucial role in ensuring food safety and quality. Understanding microbial growth, food spoilage mechanisms, and foodborne pathogens helps in implementing effective food processing, preservation, and sanitation practices to prevent food contamination and foodborne illnesses.
• Biology is also essential in animal agriculture and food production. Animal biology encompasses the study of animal physiology, behavior, genetics, nutrition, and reproduction. This knowledge is applied to improve animal health, welfare, and productivity in livestock farming systems.
• Biology contributes to the sustainable management of aquatic resources through aquaculture and fisheries practices. Aquaculture involves the cultivation of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, and algae, while fisheries management focuses on maintaining fish populations and ecosystems to ensure long-term sustainability.
• Advances in biotechnology, including genetic engineering, molecular breeding, and biopharmaceuticals, have revolutionized food production and agriculture. Biotechnology tools enable the development of genetically modified crops with improved traits, vaccines for livestock diseases, and enzymes for food processing.

Thus, the integration of biology into food production systems helps in addressing global challenges such as food security, environmental sustainability, and public health while promoting innovation and advancements in agricultural practices.

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Food Safety and Public Health:

Biology informs the study of food safety and public health by identifying biological hazards, pathogens, toxins, and contaminants that may pose risks to human health when present in food. Microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi can cause foodborne illnesses and outbreaks if food is mishandled, contaminated, or improperly processed. Understanding the biology of foodborne pathogens helps inform food safety practices, regulations, and interventions to prevent foodborne diseases and protect public health.

• Food safety measures are implemented to prevent the contamination of food with harmful pathogens, toxins, chemicals, and other contaminants that can cause foodborne illnesses. Common pathogens include bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, Escherichia coli), viruses (e.g., norovirus, hepatitis A), parasites (e.g., Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma), and fungi (e.g., molds, aflatoxins).
• Governments and public health agencies establish food safety regulations, standards, and guidelines to ensure the safety and quality of food products throughout the food supply chain. These regulations cover various aspects of food production, processing, distribution, storage, and preparation, and they are enforced through inspections, audits, and compliance monitoring by regulatory authorities.
• Food safety experts conduct risk assessments to identify potential hazards in the food supply and evaluate their likelihood of causing harm to human health. Risk management strategies are then implemented to mitigate these hazards and reduce the risk of foodborne illnesses through interventions such as Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP), good manufacturing practices (GMPs), and preventive controls.
• Public health surveillance systems track and monitor foodborne illnesses, outbreaks, and trends in food safety to identify emerging pathogens, assess the effectiveness of control measures, and inform public health interventions and policies. Surveillance data help identify sources of contamination, trace outbreaks to their origins, and prevent further spread of foodborne diseases.
• Public health agencies and organizations conduct educational campaigns and outreach efforts to raise awareness about safe food handling practices, proper food storage and preparation techniques, and the importance of personal hygiene and sanitation in preventing foodborne illnesses. These initiatives target consumers, food handlers, food service establishments, healthcare providers, and other stakeholders involved in the food supply chain.
• Food safety is a global concern, and international collaboration and cooperation are essential for addressing foodborne hazards, promoting harmonized food safety standards, and facilitating trade in safe and wholesome food products across borders. International organizations such as the World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and Codex Alimentarius Commission play key roles in setting global standards and guidelines for food safety and quality.
• In the event of foodborne illness outbreaks or food safety emergencies, public health agencies and emergency response teams mobilize to investigate the cause, contain the spread of illness, provide medical treatment and support to affected individuals, and implement corrective actions to prevent future incidents.

Thus, ensuring food safety is essential for protecting public health, reducing the burden of foodborne diseases, and promoting the well-being of individuals and communities worldwide. It requires a coordinated and multidisciplinary approach involving government agencies, industry stakeholders, healthcare professionals, researchers, and consumers working together to safeguard the integrity and safety of the food supply.

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Conclusion:

Biology and food are intricately connected fields that explore how living organisms interact with and obtain nutrients from their environment. Biology provides the scientific foundation for understanding the biological basis of food, nutrition, and health. By integrating principles of biology with food science, nutrition, and public health, we can promote safe, nutritious, and sustainable food systems that support human health and well-being. Biology encompasses the study of how organisms obtain and utilize nutrients for growth, development, and energy. Biology examines the metabolic processes involved in the breakdown, absorption, and utilization of nutrients from food. Biology studies the mechanisms of digestion and absorption of nutrients across different organisms. Biology delves into the biochemical composition of food and how its constituents contribute to health and physiological functions. Macronutrients such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, as well as micronutrients like vitamins and minerals, play essential roles in biological processes. Biology explores the relationships between organisms within ecosystems, including their roles as producers, consumers, and decomposers in food chains and food webs. Understanding these interactions is vital for maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity. Biology investigates the principles of agriculture and food production, including plant and animal breeding, crop science, and food technology. Biology examines the links between diet, nutrition, and health outcomes, including the role of food in preventing or predisposing individuals to diseases such as obesity, diabetes. Thus, the study of biology and food is multidisciplinary, encompassing aspects of biochemistry, physiology, ecology, genetics, and nutrition to elucidate the complex relationships between living organisms and their food sources.

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The name protein (proteios Greek  = pre-eminent or first) was first suggested, in 1838, by a Swedish chemist Berzelius to a Dutch chemist Mulder, who referred it to the complex organic nitrogenous substances found in the cells of the living beings. They are naturally occurring nitrogenous polymers of different alpha-amino acids linked by peptide (—CONH) linkage. On hydrolysis, they give a mixture of alpha-amino acids. Thus proteins are biopolymers of alpha-amino acids. They contain carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, and oxygen as constituent elements. They may contain cobalt, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, etc.

They are present in animals as well as plants. In the animal kingdom, it occurs in forms such as silk, wool, hair, nail, skin, haemoglobin of blood, and blood plasma. In the plant kingdom, it occurs in high concentration in seeds. Their sources are pulses, milk, eggs, fish, meat, etc. They are important because they regulate metabolic processes. They are essential constituents of all living matter.

Classification of Proteins:

Classification on the Basis of Composition:

Simple proteins:

They on acid hydrolysis give only alpha-amino acids. e.g.

• Albumins: egg albumin, Serum albumin
• Globulins: Tissue, vegetable,  and Serum globulin
• Glutenins: Glutenin in wheat.
• Protamines: Occur in the nucleic acid.

Conjugated proteins:

They on hydrolysis (acids or alkalies or enzymes) give alpha-amino acids and non-protein group. e.g.

• Glycoproteins: Contain carbohydrate as a prosthetic group. e.g. egg white, mucin of saliva
• Nucleoproteins: Contain nucleic acid as a prosthetic group. e.g. components of viruses, chromosomes, and ribosome structures.
• Chromoproteins: Contain chlorophyll as a prosthetic group. e.g. Haemoglobin
• Phosphoproteins: Contain Phosphoric acid as a prosthetic group. e.g. Casein of milk and vielline of egg yolk.
• Lipoproteins: Contain fats as a prosthetic group. e.g. membrane structure, lipids transported in the blood.
• Flavoprotein: Contain flavine Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) as a prosthetic group. This protein is important in the electron transport chain in respiration.
• Metal-protein: Contain metal as a prosthetic group. e.g. the protein in plants nitrate reductase, which converts nitrates into nitrites.

Derived proteins:

Natural proteins undergo structural change because of heat, chemical reagents, enzymes, acids, or alkalies and form degraded products of proteins (derived).

The flow is Proteins → Proteoses → Peptones → Polypeptides → Simple peptides → amino acids

Classification Based on Structure:

Globular proteins:

• They have a globular or elliptical shape. They are also called as spheroproteins.
• They are soluble in water, acids, and bases. They form a colloidal solution with water.
• They are made up of not only primary, secondary but also tertiary and occasionally quaternary structures.
• They form enzymes, antibodies, and some hormones (insulin), etc. They are needed for the formation of chemical messengers like hormones in the body. They are essential for the formation of transporters of other particles through the membrane.
• e.g. egg albumin (egg white), Casein in milk

Fibrous proteins:

• They have a fiber-like structure. They are also called as scleroproteins.
• They are elongated strand-like structures and are usually present in the form of rods or wires.
• They are insoluble in water, weak acids, and weak bases but soluble in strong acids and alkalis.
• They have primary and secondary structures. They are made up of a single unit or structure which is repeated multiple times.
• They perform a structural function in the cell. They are needed for the formation of tough structures like connective tissue, tendons, and fibers of the muscle.
• e.g. collagen, elastin, keratin of hair, Nails, horn, feathers. fibroin of silk.

Classification Based on Functions:

Enzymic Proteins.

• They are the most varied and most highly specialized proteins and shows catalytic activity. Almost all enzymes are globular proteins.
• Enzymes catalyze a variety of reactions.
• Examples: Urease, amylase, catalase, cytochrome C, alcohol dehydrogenase

Structural Proteins.

They are usually inert to biochemical reactions. They maintain the native form and position of the organs. The cell wall and primary fibrous constituents of the cell have structural proteins.

• Collagen: It is found in connective tissue such as tendons, cartilage, a matrix of bones, and the cornea of the eye. Leather is almost pure collagen.
• Elastin: It is found in ligaments. It is capable of stretching in two dimensions.
• Keratin: It constitutes almost the entire dry weight of hair, wool, feathers, nails, claws, quills, scales, horns, hooves, tortoiseshell, and much of the outer layer of skin.
• Fibroin: It is the major component of silk fibres and spider webs.
• Resilin: The wing hinges of some insects are made of resilin, which has nearly perfect elastic properties.

Transport or Carrier Proteins:

• Certain proteins, especially in animals, are involved in the transport of many essential biological factors to various parts of the organisms.
• Hemoglobin of erythrocytes carries oxygen to tissues. The blood plasma contains lipoproteins, which carry lipids from the liver to other organs. Ceruloplasmin transports copper in the blood.

Nutrient and Storage Proteins:

Ovalbumin is the major protein of egg white. The milk protein, casein stores amino acids. The seeds of many plants store nutrient proteins, required for the growth of the germinating seedlings. Ferritin, found in some bacteria and in plant and animal tissues, stores iron.

Contractile or Motile Proteins:

• They give an ability to contract, move about, and change shape to cells. Actin and myosin function in the contractile system of skeletal muscle and also in many nonmuscle cells.
• Microtubules are built up of Tubulin.

Defense Proteins:

• They defend organism against invasion by other species or protect them from injury.
• Immunity: The antibodies (or immunoglobulins), the specialized proteins made by the lymphocytes of vertebrates, can precipitate or neutralize invading bacteria, viruses or foreign proteins from another species.
• Blood Clotting: Fibrinogen and thrombin, although enzymic, are blood-clotting proteins that prevent loss of blood when the vascular system is injured.

Regulatory Proteins:

• They regulate the cellular or physiological activity. They are called hormones.
• For example, insulin regulates sugar metabolism and growth hormone which is required for bone growth.
• The cellular response to many hormonal signals is often mediated by a class of GTP-binding proteins called G-proteins.
• Some of them bind to DNA and regulate the biosynthesis of enzymes and RNA molecules involved in cell division.

Toxic proteins.

Snake venom, bacterial toxins, and toxic plant proteins are toxic. They have defensive functions.

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In the last article, we have studied monosaccharides. In this article, we shall study disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Disaccharides:

Di-saccharides on hydrolysis give two molecules of monosaccharide. They on hydrolysis with dilute acids or enzymes yield two molecules of either the same or different monosaccharides.

e.g. Cane sugar (Sucrose) (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose, Maltose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) on hydrolysis gives two molecules of glucose, Lactose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose.

• Disaccharides are crystalline, water-soluble, and sweet in taste.
• They have the general formula (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁).
• The two monosaccharides are joined together by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.

Examples of Disaccharides:

Sucrose:

One of the common disaccharides is sucrose which on hydrolysis gives an equimolar mixture of α -D-Glucapyranose and β-D-Fructofuranose. These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of α-glucose and C2 of β-fructose.

Since the reducing groups of glucose and fructose are involved in the glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-reducing sugar.

Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (–92.4°) is more than dextrorotation of glucose (+ 52.5°), the mixture is laevorotatory. Thus, hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation, from dextro (+) to laevo in the sign of rotation, from Dextro (+) to Laevo (–) and the product is named as invert sugar.

Maltose:

Another disaccharides, maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II).

The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows  reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar

Cellobiose:

Cellobiose is obtained by partial hydrolysis of cellulose, C1 of one β-D-Glucapyranose is linked to C4 of another β-D-Glucapyranose by glucosidic linkage. Thus cellobiose contains 1→ 4 β- glucosic bond.

Cellobiose is reducing sugar because free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 in second glucose molecule

Lactose:

It is more commonly known as milk sugar since this disaccharide is found in milk. It is composed of β-D-galactose (β-D-Galactopyranose) and β-D-glucose (β-D-Glucopyranose). The glucosidic linkage is between C1 of β-D-galactose (b-D-Galactopyranose) and C4 of β-D-glucose (β-D-Glucopyranose). Hence it is also a reducing sugar.

Reducing Sugars:

The saccharides in which aldehydic and ketonic groups are free are called reducing sugars. They reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent. They contain either α-hydroxy aldehyde or α -hydroxy ketone group or contain cyclic hemiacetal or cyclic hemiketal structures.

All monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Diasaccharides like maltose, lactose and cellobiose are reducing sugars.

Nonreducing sugars:

The saccharides in which aldehydic and ketonic groups are not free are called non-reducing sugars. They do not reduce Fehling’s solution and Tollen’s reagent. They contain stable acetal or ketal structures which cannot be opened into the free carbonyl group.

Sucrose, Starch, Cellulose, Glycogen, Dextrin are reducing sugars.

Hemiacetal and Hemiketal Structures:

They are formed when an alcohol oxygen atom adds to the carbonyl carbon of an aldehyde or a ketone. When alcohol adds to an aldehyde, the result is called a hemiacetal; when alcohol adds to a ketone the resulting product is a hemiketal.

This happens through the nucleophilic attack of the hydroxyl group at the electrophilic carbonyl group. Since alcohols are weak nucleophiles, the attack on the carbonyl carbon is usually promoted by protonation of the carbonyl oxygen.

PolySaccharides:

Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give indefinite or large no. of monosaccharides (more than 10)  are called polysaccharides. They contain a large number of monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. These are the most commonly encountered carbohydrates in nature. They mainly act as food storage or structural materials.

• They are natural polymeric carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water, amorphous, and tasteless.
• They are nonsugars.
• They have the general formula (C6H10O5)n.  e.g. Starch, Cellulose, Inulin, Dextrin, etc
• Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-Glucose units while starch is a branched polymer of a-glucose units.

Examples of Polysaccharides:

Starch:

Starch is the main storage polysaccharide of plants. It is the most important dietary source for human beings. High content of starch is found in cereals, roots, tubers, and some vegetables. It is a polymer of α-glucose (α-D-Glucopyranose) and consists of two components Amylose and Amylopectin.

Amylose is a water-soluble component which constitutes about 15-20% of starch. Chemically amylose is a long unbranched chain with 200-1000 α-D-(+)-glucose units held by C1– C4 glycosidic linkage.

Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80-85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of α-D-glucose units in which chain is formed by C1–C4 glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1–C6 glycosidic linkage

Glycogen:

The carbohydrates are stored in the animal body as glycogen. It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to amylopectin and is rather more highly branched. It is present in the liver, muscles, and brain. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose (hydrolysis). Glycogen is also found in yeast and fungi.

Importance of Carbohydrates:

• Carbohydrates are essential for life in both plants and animals.
• They form a major portion of our food. Honey has been used for a long time as an instant source of energy by ‘Vaids’ in Ayurvedic system of medicine.
• Carbohydrates are used as storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
• The cell wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose. We build furniture, etc. from cellulose in the form of wood and clothe ourselves with cellulose in the form of cotton fibre.
• They provide raw materials for many important industries like textiles, paper, lacquers and breweries.
• Two aldopentoses viz. D-ribose and 2-deoxy D-ribose (Section are present in nucleic acids. Carbohydrates are found in biosystem in the combination with many proteins and lipids.

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In the last article, we have seen what are carbohydrates and how are they classified. Based on hydrolysis behaviour the carbohydrates are classified into three types. a) Mono-Saccharides b) Oligo-Saccharides and c) Poly-Saccharides. In this article, we shall study monosaccharides in detail particularly glucose and fructose.

Monosaccharides:

Carbohydrates which are basic units or which cannot be hydrolyzed further are called monosaccharides.

Characteristics of mono-saccharides:

• Carbohydrates which are basic units or which cannot be hydrolysed further are called monosaccharides.
• They are basic units of carbohydrates.
• They cannot be hydrolysed further into small units.
• They contain six carbon atoms in a molecule.
• They are water-soluble and sweat in taste.
• Depending upon the presence of an aldehydic group or a ketonic group they are further subclassified into aldoses and ketoses respectively.

Aldoses: The monosaccharides containing the aldehydic group are called aldoses. Examples: Aldopentose C₅H₁₀O₅ – Arbaniose, Xylose, Ribose. Aldohexose C₆H₁₂O₆ – Glucose, Galactose

Ketoses: The monosaccharides containing the ketonic group are called ketoses. Examples: Ketopentose C₅H₁₀O₅ – Ribulose.Ketohexose C₆H₁₂O₆ – Fructose.

Preparation of Glucose:

From Sucrose (Cane sugar): (Laboratory Method):

When powdered cane sugar is heated with a concentrated alcoholic solution of HCl on a water bath for about 2 hours at about 323 K, glucose is formed.

It is insoluble in alcohol while fructose is soluble in alcohol. Hence glucose crystallizes out first leaving fructose in the solution.  A few crystals of glucose may be added to the solution for quicker crystallization. This is known as seeding. Purification is done by recrystallizing it from methanol.

From Starch: (Commercial Method):

Starch on hydrolysis with dilute sulphuric acid by heating under 3 to 5 atmospheric pressure gives glucose.

When hydrolysis is complete the excess of unreacted sulphuric acid is neutralised with calcium carbonate and filtered to remove the precipitate of calcium sulphate.

CaCO₃ + H₂SO₄   →   CaSO₄   + H₂O + CO₂ ­

The filtrate which contains glucose and one molecule of water is decolorized using animal charcoal. The clear solution is then evaporated in a vacuum to get a thick syrup on cooling crystallizes to give glucose-monohydrate. It is recrystallized from methanol.

Structure of Glucose:

Open Chain Structure:

Following chemical reactions of glucose confirm its open chain structure

• On prolonged heating with HI it gives n-hexane suggesting that all the six carbons are linked in a straight chain.

• Hydroxylamine condenses with an aldehydic group to form glucose-oxime.

• Hydrogen cyanide adds to an aldehydic group to form cyanohydrin.

• On oxidation by a mild oxidizing agent like bromine water, it gives gluconic acid, which shows that the carbonyl group is the aldehyde group.

• Glucose, as well as gluconic acid on oxidation by dilute nitric acid, gives dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid, which shows the presence of the alcoholic group.

• On acetylation by acetic anhydride it gives glucose-pentaacetate., which confirms the presence of five hydroxyl group. As glucose is a stable compound these five hydroxyl group must be on five different carbon atoms.

Challenges to open chain structure or the need of cyclic structure:

The following points indicate the absence of a free aldehyde group in glucose.

• In spite of having an aldehyde group it does not give a condensation reaction with 2,4 dinitro-phenyl hydrazine
• Glucose-pentaacetate does not condense with hydroxylamine
• It is found to exist in two different crystalline forms α and β called anomers.

Haworth Projection of Glucose:

The cyclic structure in Haworth projection depicts the ring as being flat. The substituents that are to the right in a Fischer projection formula are down and those to the left are up in the corresponding Haworth projection formula. Orient the Haworth projection formula with the ring oxygen at the back and the anomeric carbon at the right.

For carbohydrates of D series a) If hydroxyl is down, the configuration of anomeric carbon is α and b) If hydroxyl is up, the configuration of anomeric carbon is β.

For carbohydrates of L series a) If hydroxyl is up, the configuration of anomeric carbon is α and b) If hydroxyl is down, the configuration of anomeric carbon is β.

Note: A ring containing five carbons and one oxygen is referred pyran

Physical Properties of Glucose:

• It is a white crystalline solid.
• It is soluble in water but sparingly soluble in alcohol.
• As it contains 4 asymmetric carbon atoms, it is an optically active compound.
• It is dextrorotatory. It has a specific rotation of  + 52.5°.

Fructose::

Fructose also has the molecular formula C₆H₁₂O₆ and on the basis of its reactions, it was found to contain a ketonic functional group at carbon number 2 and six carbons in the straight chain as in the case of glucose.

It belongs to D-series and is a laevorotatory compound. It is appropriately written as D-(–)-fructose. Its open chain structure is as shown.

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All those simple or complex organic and inorganic substances found in different living forms are collectively called as biomolecules. Biomolecules can be grouped into two types micro and macromolecules. The micro molecules have moderate to low molecular mass.  e.g. sugars, amino acids, and their derivatives, vitamins, coenzymes, nucleotides, inorganic salts, and water. The macromolecules have very large molecular mass. e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils, lipids, and nucleic acids. These biomolecules contribute in one or other way to the structure and/or function of the living system.

Biomolecules are the lifeless molecules which combine in a specific manner to produce life or control biological reactions.  e.g. carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oils, lipids, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones or compounds that give polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones on hydrolysis. They contain at least one asymmetric carbon atom.   e.g. Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), Cane sugar Sucrose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁). They are a class of naturally occurring organic compounds found in plants and animal kingdoms. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen actually carbohydrates mean hydrates of carbon. The proportion of hydrogen and oxygen is definite 2:1. The exception is Rhamnose (C6H12O5). The sources of carbohydrates are Rice, Wheat, Jowar, Bajra, etc. They function as structural material (Cellulose) and reserved food material (Sugar, starch). They are essential for the growth and maintenance of animal life.

Classification of Carbohydrates:

On the Basis of Solubility and Taste:

Based on solubility and the taste, the carbohydrates are classified into two types. a) Sugars and b) Non-sugars.

Characteristics of sugars:

• They are soluble in water.
• They are crystalline in nature.
• They are sweet in taste.
• e.g. Cane sugar, Glucose etc.

Characteristics of non sugars:

• They are insoluble in water.
• They are amorphous in nature.
• They are tasteless
• e.g. Starch, cellulose, etc.

On the Basis of Hydrolysis Behaviour:

Based on hydrolysis behaviour the carbohydrates are classified into three types. a) Mono-Saccharides b) Oligo-Saccharides and c) Poly-Saccharides.

Monosaccharides: 

Carbohydrates which are basic units or which cannot be hydrolyzed further are called monosaccharides.

Characteristics of mono-saccharides:

• Carbohydrates which are basic units or which cannot be hydrolysed further are called monosaccharides.
• They are basic units of carbohydrates.
• They cannot be hydrolysed further into small units.
• They contain six carbon atoms in a molecule.
• They are water-soluble and sweat in taste.
• Depending upon the presence of an aldehydic group or a ketonic group they are further subclassified into aldoses and ketoses respectively.

Aldoses: The monosaccharides containing the aldehydic group are called aldoses. Examples: Aldopentose C₅H₁₀O₅ – Arbaniose, Xylose, Ribose. Aldohexose C₆H₁₂O₆ – Glucose, Galactose

Ketoses: The monosaccharides containing the ketonic group are called ketoses. Examples: Ketopentose C₅H₁₀O₅ – Ribulose.Ketohexose C₆H₁₂O₆ – Fructose.

Oligo-saccharides:

Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give definite no. of monosaccharides i.e. 2 to 9 molecules of monosaccharides are called oligosaccharides. Depending upon no. of monosaccharides formed on hydrolysis they are further subclassified into Di-saccharides, Tri-saccharides, Tetra-saccharides, etc.

Di-saccharides: 

• Di-saccharides on hydrolysis give two molecules of monosaccharide.
• e.g. Cane sugar (Sucrose) (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of fructose, Maltose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) on hydrolysis gives two molecules of glucose, Lactose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁) on hydrolysis gives one molecule of glucose and one molecule of galactose.
• Disaccharides are crystalline, water-soluble and sweet in taste.
• They have the general formula (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁).

Tri-saccharides:

• Tri-saccharides on hydrolysis give three molecules of monosaccharide.
• e.g. Raffinose (C₁₈H₃₂O₁₆).

Tetra-saccharides: 

• Tetra-saccharides on hydrolysis give three molecules of monosaccharide.
• e.g. Stachyose (C₂₄H₄₂O₂₁).

Poly-saccharides:

• Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give indefinite or large no. of monosaccharides (more than 10)  are called polysaccharides.
• They are natural polymeric carbohydrates. They are insoluble in water, amorphous and tasteless.
• They are nonsugars.
• They have the general formula (C₆H₁₀O₅)_n.  e.g. Starch, Cellulose, Inulin, Dextrin etc
• Cellulose is a linear polymer of β-Glucose units while starch is a branched polymer of a-glucose units.

Action of Fehling’s solution on Sucrose:

• Sucrose gives polyhydroxy aldehydes on hydrolysis.
• Fehling’s solution is a mild oxidising agent. It is a complex of cuprous ions of tartaric acid in the presence of an alkali.
• When treated with hydrolysis products of sucrose, the aldehyde formed gets oxidised and the red precipitate of cuprous oxide is formed.

Fischer Projection:

The wedge and dash representations of stereochemistry can often become cumbersome, especially for large molecules which contain a number of stereocenters. An alternative way to represent stereochemistry is the Fischer Projection, which was first used by the German chemist Emil Fischer. The Fischer projection represents every stereocenter as a cross. The horizontal line represents bonds extending out of the plane of the page, whereas the vertical line represents bonds extending into the plane of the page.

When working with Fischer Projections, keep in mind the following rules:

• Because the “up” and “down” aspects of the bonds don’t change, a Fischer projection may be rotated by 180 degrees without changing its meaning.

• A Fischer projection may not be rotated by 90 degrees. Such a rotation typically changes the configuration to the enantiomer.

• To find the enantiomer of a molecule drawn as a Fischer projection, simply exchange the right and left horizontal bonds.

• To determine whether the molecule in Fischer projection is a meso compound, draw a horizontal line through the center of the molecule and determine whether the molecule is symmetric about that line.

• D – and L – Sugars: Glyceraldehyde is an aldotriose it is the simplest optically active compound. It contains one asymmetric carbon atom and has two enantiomers (stereoisomers) as shown

• In Fischer projection, if the hydroxyl group at the lowest chirality centre points to the right, the monosaccharide is referred as D- sugar. if the hydroxyl group at the lowest chirality centre points to the left, the monosaccharide is referred as D- sugar.

Structure of Some Monosaccharides:

Triose (C₃H₆O₃):

Tetrose (C₄H₈O₄):

Pentose (C₅H₁₀O₅):

Hexose (C₆H₁₂O₆):

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In this article, we shall study the meaning of chemistry and its different branches.

What is Chemistry?

Science word is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘to know’. Science has many disciplines, Chemistry is one of them. It is the study of materials that make up the universe and changes which these materials undergo.

It is defined as the study of the composition, structure, and properties of matter and the reactions by which one form of matter may be converted into another form.

Chemistry is a central science. It can be explained as follows. Study of chemistry is being done from the ancient time all over the world. It is ancient science but its major development has taken in the modern era. Chemistry provides the support structure to all other sciences like physics, biology, geology, environmental science and engineering.

The significance of the Study of Chemistry:

Food: 

Artificial sweetener, flavouring agent, food preservatives are chemical compounds and are man-made.

Green revolution in India has taken place due to the use of mechanized agriculture with the use of chemical fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides etc.

Sodium benzoate, sodium meta bisulphate, and salicylic acid are food preservatives.

Clothing: 

We get cotton, wool, jute, silk as natural fibres (fibres) for making clothes. But synthetically prepared fibres like nylon, rayon, dacron are superior to the natural fibres.

Shelter:

For shelter steel, aluminium, copper, plastic is required. They are extracted or produced by chemical processes.

Medicines:

Antibiotics, synthetic drugs, antiseptics, anaesthetics, antipyretics, analgesics, vitamins and hormones are used in the improvement of human life.

Some important drugs areTaxol (a Life-saving drug for cancer ), Cisplatin (Cancer therapy), Azidothymidine (AIDS treatment), Prophylactics (Disease preventing), L-Dopa (Parkinson’s disease), Human insulin (Diabetes treatment), Tamiflu (Swine flue).

Agriculture:

Chemical fertilizers like urea, calcium nitrate, ammonium sulphate etc. and insecticides like D.D.T.  (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane),  gammexane, methoxychlor etc. are used for the improvement of agricultural yield.

Transportation and Electrical Energy:

Fuels like petrol, diesel, C.N.G. etc. are good fuels which are used in automobiles. This energy can be used to generate electrical energy. In the field of electrochemistry Daniel cell, a Lead storage cell, dry cells, fuel cells are used to produce electricity.

Energy resources:

Petroleum, wood, coal, charcoal, nuclear fuel are chemical substances which are used to satisfy our energy requirements.

Health:

Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals are the chemical substances which are required for the maintenance of our body functions and health.

Industry and Everyday Life:

kerosene, gasoline, petrol, diesel, compressed natural gas (C.N.G.), liquefied petroleum gas (L.P.G.), Paraffin (Wax), Vaseline, Boot Polish, Fibres like wool, silk, cotton, jute, Synthetic fibres like nylon, terylene, polyester, Solvents like water, chloroform, alcohol, benzene, acetone, carbon tetra chloride , substances like poly vinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene, bakelite, rubber, Paints, varnishes, dyes, indigo, azodyes, printing inks, detergents, soaps, perfumes, insecticides, fertilizers are chemical  compounds.

All engineering materials like iron, steel, stainless steel, aluminium, zinc, tin, copper, galvanized steel, alloys like brass, amalgams, precious metals like silver, gold, platinum are extracted, purified, synthesized, analyzed using processes based on chemical technology.

Education:

There are para chemical branches like Biochemistry, Biotechnology, Pharmacy, Herbal Science, Toxicology, Archaeology and Environmental Science.

Branches of Chemistry:

Different branches of chemistry are

Physical Chemistry:

The branch of chemistry that deals with the structure of matter, the energy change and theories, laws, principles that explain the transformation of matter from one form to another.

Inorganic Chemistry:

This is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of elements other than carbon and their compounds.

Organic Chemistry:

This is the branch of chemistry that deals with the chemistry of carbon and its compounds.

Analytical Chemistry:

This is the branch of chemistry that deals with the separation, identification and quantitative determination of compositions of different substances.

Industrial Chemistry:

This branch deals with the chemistry involved in industrial processes

Nuclear Chemistry:

This branch deals with the study of nuclear reactions as nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and transmutations.

Biochemistry:

This is the chemistry of the substances consisting of living organisms.

In the next article, we shall discuss the chemical classification of substances viz: Pure substances, mixtures, elements, compounds, and their characteristics.

Next Topic: Chemical Classification of Substances

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In this article, we shall study the use of microbes as biocontrol agents and biofertilizers.

Microbes as Biocontrol Agents:

Chemical insecticides and pesticides are toxic and extremely harmful, to human beings and animals. These chemicals pollute the environment (soil, groundwater), fruits, vegetables, and crop plants. Our soil is also polluted due to the use of weedicides to remove weeds. To avoid this pollution and environmental degradation, biocontrol methods are used in place of chemicals. Biocontrol refers to the use of biological methods for controlling plant diseases and pests.

Microbial Pesticides:

In agriculture, there is a method of controlling pests that relies on natural predation rather than introduced chemicals. In this method, pests are kept in check, and not totally eradicated. Thus the food chains not disturbed e.g. Ladybird and Dragonflies useful to get rid of aphids and mosquitoes. Microbes used are either pathogens or predators or parasites on the pests. As it is natural predation it is not harmful.

An example of microbial biocontrol agent Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) used to control butterfly caterpillar. They are available in sachets as dry spores, mixed with water and sprayed on plants. Fruits of these plants are eaten by insect larvae. In the gut of the larvae, the toxin is released and the larvae get killed. The bacterial disease will kill the caterpillars, but leave other insects unharmed. Now Bt toxin genes introduced into plants, which makes them resistant to insect pests. e.g. Bt cotton.

A biological control being developed for use in the treatment of plant disease is the fungus Tungus Trichoderma. Trichoderma species are free-living fungi that are very common in the root ecosystems. They are effective biocontrol agents of several plant pathogens.

Groups of Biocontrol Agents:

Pathogen: Bacteria

• Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
• Host range: Caterpillars (larvae of moths and butterflies). larvae of Aedes, black flies, some adult beetles, wax moths etc.

Pathogen: Fungi

• Beauveria bassiana
• Host range: Aphids, mealy bugs, mites, whiteflies, etc.

Pathogens: Protozoans

• Nosema locustae
• Host range: Grasshoppers, caterpillars, some corn borers and crickets.

Pathogen: Viruses

• Nucleopolyhedrovirus or NPV
• Host range: Gypsy moths and caterpillars

Microbial Herbicides/ Weedicides:

Pathogenic fungi as mycoherbicides:

• Phytopthera palmivora
• Alternaria crassa
• Fusarium sp.

Pathogenic bacteria as mycoherbicides:

• Pseudomonas sp.
• Xanthomonas sp.
• Agrobacterium sp.

Microbes as Biofertilizers:

The use of the chemical fertilizers to meet the ever-increasing demand for agricultural produce has contributed significantly to the pollution. Hence switching to organic farming is essential. Biofertilizers are organisms that enrich the nutrient quality of the soil. The main sources of biofertilizers are bacteria, fungi, and cyanobacteria.

Bacterial Biofertilizers:

The nodules on the roots of leguminous plants formed by the symbiotic association of Rhizobium. These bacteria multiply in the root and fix atmospheric nitrogen into organic forms, which is used by the plant as a nutrient. The specific Rhizobium is specific for a particular plant. e.g pea plant (Rhizobium leguminosarum) and for bean plant (Rhizobium phsaeoli).

Other bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen while free-living in the soil (examples Azospirillum and Azotobacter), thus enriching the nitrogen content of the soil.

Cyanobacterial Biofertilizers:

Cyanobacteria are autotrophic microbes many of which can fix atmospheric nitrogen. They are free-living, filamentous and may be aquatic or terrestrial. e.g. Anabaena azollae, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Aulosira, Tolypothrix, etc. These blue-green algae have specialized cells called heterocytes which help in the fixation of nitrogen. In paddy fields, cyanobacteria (mainly Anabaena azollae, Nostoc) serve as an important biofertilizer.

Fungal Biofertilizers:

Fungi like mycorrhiza can also form symbiotic associations with plants. Many members of the genus Glomus form mycorrhiza. e.g. Ectomucorrhiza and Endomucorrhiza. The fungal symbiont in these associations absorbs phosphorus from soil and passes it to the plant.

Ectomycorrhizae form mycelium outside the root in the form of the mantle. It increases the surface area of the root. Due to which there is an increase in the uptake of water and nutrients. Due to which overall rate of growth of plant increases.

Endomicorrhizae grow in between and within the cortical cells of roots. The fungal hyphae penetrate the cells and form vesicles or finely branched arbuscles. Hence they are called Vesicular Arbuscular Mycorrhizae or VAM. Due to their presence, the plant can grow easily in the less irrigated land.

This association increases the resistance to root-borne pathogens, tolerance to salinity and drought and increase in plant growth and development.

Biodegradable Plastic:

Biodegradable plastic, like polyhydroxy butyrate (PHB) is being produced commercially by fermentation with the bacterium Alcaligenes eutrophus. Production of PHB can be easily achieved in tree plants like populous, where PHB can be extracted from leaves. Its production cost is high compared to synthetic plastics.

Edible vaccines:

The genes encoding the antigenic proteins of viruses and bacteria can be isolated from the pathogens and expressed in plants. such transgenic plants or their tissues producing antigens can be eaten for vaccination/immunization. Hence they are called edible vaccines.

The expression of such antigenic proteins in crops like banana and tomato are useful for immunization of humans since banana and tomato fruits can be eaten raw. Example: cholera and hepatitis B vaccine.

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In the previous article, we have studied the importance of biology. In this article, we shall study different branches of biology.

On the Basis of Kind of Organism:

Depending upon the kind of organism, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Botany: Botany is the scientific study of plants which include algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants.
• Zoology:  Zoology involves the study of animals including their classification, their history, their anatomy, and physiology,
• Microbiology: Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible to the naked eye. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa, and algae, collectively known as ‘microbes’.
• Human Biology: Human biology is the branch of biology that deals with human beings and human populations. It includes all the aspects of the human as an organism including genetics, ecology, anatomy and physiology, anthropology, and nutrition. Human biology is related to other fields of biology such as medicine, primate biology, and biological anthropology.

On the Basis of Group of Organisms:

Depending upon the group of organisms under the study, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Bacteriology: The science and study of bacteria and their relation to medicine and to other areas such as agriculture (e.g., farm animals) and the industry is called Bacteriology.
• Virology: Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents, including (but not limited to) their taxonomy, disease-producing properties, cultivation, and genetics. It is often considered a part of microbiology or pathology.
• Mycology: Mycology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of fungi. It includes the research of their genetic and biochemical properties and their use in medicine and food along with their hazards.
• Entomology: Entomology is a branch of zoology that studies insects and how they interact with their environment, other species and humans.
• Ichthyology: Ichthyology is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fishes, which includes bony fish (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha).
• Herpetology: Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians,  reptiles. Batrachology is a further subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians only.
• Ornithology: Ornithology is the scientific field dedicated to the study of birds.

On the Basis of Approach to Study:

Depending upon the approach of the study, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Anatomy: It is the scientific study focusing on the physical structures and parts of organisms (plants and animals).
• Morphology: Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure (internal and external)  of organisms and their specific structural features
• Histology: Histology is the scientific study of the fine detail of biological cells and tissues using microscopes
• Cytology: The study of structure and function of plant and animal cells.
• Physiology: The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes is called physiology.
• Embryology: Embryology is the study of the development of an embryo from the stage of ovum fertilization through to the fetal stage.
• Taxonomy or Systematics: The science of identifying, naming, grouping and classifying plants and animals is called taxonomy or systematics.
• Ecology: Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
• Biogeology: The study of the interaction between the Earth’s biosphere and the lithosphere.
• Biogeography: Biogeography is a study of the distribution of various species and ecosystems geographically and throughout geological time and space.
• Paleontology:  the study of fossils to determine the structure and evolution of extinct animals and plants and the age and conditions of deposition of the rock strata in which they are found is called Palaeontology.
• Evolution: evolution is the branch of biology which studies the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.
• Genetics: Genetics is a branch of biology that deals with heredity and variations.
• Parasitology: Parasites are those organisms that live on or inside other organisms called the host and draw nourishment from the host are called parasites. The study of parasites is called parasitology. It includes the study of three major groups of animals: parasitic protozoa, parasitic helminths (worms), and those arthropods that directly cause disease or act as vectors of various pathogens.
• Pathology: It is a branch of biology which studies diseases in plant and animals and their treatment.
• Immunology: The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of defense. Immunology is the study of the immune system.
• Eugenics: The study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population, especially by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits. Thus it is a science which aims to improve the human race through controlled heredity.
• Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of the processes behind all living organisms,

On the Basis of Agriculture and Allied Industries:

With respect to agriculture and allied industries, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Agriculture: It is a branch of biology which deals with raising crops and live stocks such as cows, buffaloes, etc.
• Veterinary Science:  The branch of medicine that deals with the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and injuries of animals, especially domestic animals.
• Marine Biology: Marine biology is the study of marine organisms, their behaviours, and their interactions with the environment.
• Horticulture: Horticulture is the science and art of producing, improving, marketing, and using fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants.
• Animal Husbandry: It is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock like cows, buffaloes, etc.
• Sericulture: Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.
• Pisciculture: The breeding, rearing, and transplantation of fish by artificial means is called pisciculture.
• Tissue Culture: Tissue culture, a method of biological research in which fragments of tissue from an animal or plant are transferred to an artificial environment in which they can continue to survive and function.
• Molecular Biology: Molecular biology is a branch of science concerning biological activity at the molecular level. The field of molecular biology overlaps with biology and chemistry and in particular, genetics and biochemistry.
• Biotechnology: Biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.
• Cloning: Cloning is a process of asexual reproduction to create offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
• Bioengineering: It is the branch of biology which with the help of engineering science help in making artificial limbs, joints and other parts of the body using engineering materials and techniques. It also includes the improvement of crops for disease resistance and yield.
• Biomedical Engineering: Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles to the fields of biology and health care. Biomedical engineers work with doctors, therapists and researchers to develop systems, equipment, and devices in order to solve clinical problems. The job includes the design, development, production, and maintenance of medical instruments.
• Nuclear biology: Nuclear biology or radiobiology is a branch of biology which studies the effect of radioactivity on living cell and also deals with the development and production of nuclear medicines for diagnosis and treatment of the diseases.
• Space Biology: The study of the survival of living things in a space is called space biology.
• Genomics: Genomics is a study of the genomes of organisms. Its main task is to determine the entire sequence of DNA or the composition of the atoms that make up the DNA and the chemical bonds between the DNA atoms.
• Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the study of living things, usually at the molecular level. Bioinformatics involves the use of computers to collect, organize and use biological information to answer questions in fields like evolutionary biology.
• Biometrics: Biometrics is a technological and scientific authentication method based on biology and used in information assurance (IA). Biometric identification authenticates secure entry, data or access via human biological information such as DNA or fingerprints.
• Forensic science: The forensic sciences are used around the world to resolve civil disputes, to justly enforce criminal laws and government regulations, and to protect public health. The field of forensic science depends on other branches of science, including physics, chemistry, and biology, with its focus being on the recognition, identification, and evaluation of physical evidence. It has become an essential part of the judicial system to achieve information relevant to criminal and legal evidence.
• Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way.

On the Basis of Medical Sciences:

On basis of medical sciences, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Gynecology and Obstetrics: Gynaecology normally means treating women who aren’t pregnant, while obstetrics deals with pregnant women and their unborn children, but there is lots of crossover between the two.
• Orthopedics: It is a branch of medical science which is devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and rehabilitation of injuries, disorders, and diseases of the body’s musculoskeletal system. This system includes bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, and tendons.
• Opthalmology: It is the branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the eyeball and orbit.
• Dentistry: It is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity.
• Oncology: Oncology is the branch of medicine that researches, identifies and treats cancer.
• Cardiology: Cardiology is a branch of medicine that concerns diseases and disorders of the heart, which may range from congenital defects through to acquired heart diseases such as coronary artery disease and congestive heart failure.
• Urology: Urology is a surgical specialty that deals with the treatment of conditions involving the male and female urinary tract and the male reproductive organs.
• Nephrology: Nephrology is a branch of medical science that deals with diseases of the kidneys.
• Pediatrics: Pediatrics is the branch of medicine dealing with the health and medical care of infants, children, and adolescents from birth up to the age of 18.
• Dermatology: Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with diagnosing and treating skin diseases affecting the skin, hair, and nails.
• Physiotherapy: Physiotherapy is a branch of medicine which uses a treatment method that focuses on the science of movement and helps people to restore, maintain and maximize their physical strength, function, motion and overall well-being by addressing the underlying physical issues.

For More Topics in Branches of Biology Click Here

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1.1.1.1 What is Physics?

Science word is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which means ‘to know’. Science has many disciplines, Physics being one of them. The word Physics is derived from the Greek word ‘Fusis’ meaning ‘nature’. Physics is that branch of Science which deals with the study of matter and energy or matter or motion i.e. Physics is a study of matter and energy in its different forms. In other words, physics is the study of nature and its laws. We expect that all the different events taking place in nature always take place according to some basic rules and revealing these rules of nature from the observed events in physics.

As physics is a study of nature and its behaviour it is real science. No one has been given authority to frame the rules. Sir Issac Newton, Einstein are the great physicist because using the observations available at that time, they could guess and frame the laws of physics, which explain these events and the observations in a convincing way. If a new phenomenon is observed which can not be explained using existing laws or rules we are always free to change the rules.

Knowledge of Physics overlaps with other sciences considerably, hence such overlapping gives rise to subjects like Biophysics, Biochemistry, Astrophysics, Geophysics, etc.

Physics can be conveniently divided into two parts, classical Physics (Pre-1900) and modern Physics (Post – 1900). Classical physics includes the study of mechanics, gravitation, heat, sound, light, electricity and magnetism. Modern Physics includes the study of quantum mechanics, relativity, atoms, molecules, nuclei, elementary particles, and condensed matter.

The complex physical phenomena involving wide range of length, mass. and time can be easily understood due to following reasons:

• A quantitative study of various natural phenomena shows that there is some regularity and symmetry even in the most complex phenomenon which helps us to understand it.
• All these phenomena can be explained in terms of only a few basic laws.
• Complex phenomena can be separated into simpler phenomena and by understanding these simple phenomena, the complex phenomena can be understood.

Scientific Methods:

The study of science and particularly in Physics is based on systematic observation, logical reasoning, model making, and theoretical prediction and necessary modifications. All the four steps taken together constitute what we call the ‘scientific method’. The scientific method helps us to describe the given physical phenomenon or behavior of a physical system in terms of a limited number of laws. This gives us what we call ‘theory’. The theory should be self-consistent and consistent with known experimental data. The discrepancy between the theory and experimental data has to lead to new theories in Physics.

Relation Between Physics and Mathematics:

Physics is directly related to maths because the description of nature becomes easy if we have the freedom to use mathematics. In physics, we use mathematical techniques like algebra, trigonometry, and calculus. Thus mathematics is a language of physics. Without knowledge of mathematics, it would be much more difficult to discover, understand and explain the laws of nature. But we should note that mathematics itself is not physics. To understand nature is a journey of physics, mathematics is the mean of the journey.

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1.1.1.2 Scope of Physics:

The scope of physics is broad and encompasses the study of the fundamental principles governing the natural world. Physics not only explores the properties and behaviour of matter and energy but also plays a crucial role in advancing technology, contributing to other scientific disciplines, and addressing fundamental questions about the nature of the universe. Here are key aspects of the scope of physics:

Mechanics:

Mechanics is a branch of physics, which deals with the motion of material bodies. In this branch, the forces responsible for producing or changing the motion of the body are studied. The energy involved is also studied. Newton’s laws of motion, the law of conservation of momentum and energy, Newton’s gravitation law forms the base of this branch of Physics.

Heat:

Heat is the energy that a body possesses by virtue of the motion of the molecules of which it is composed and the potential energy due to interatomic forces. The term heat is also used to indicate the energy in the process of transfer between an object and its surroundings because a difference exists between their temperatures. Thermodynamics is the name given to the branch of physics which studies the relationship between heat and mechanics.

Acoustics:

Acoustic is a branch which studies sound. Wave motion is studied in this branch.  An object in a state of vibration can set medium particles in the vibration and this disturbance in the medium can travel from one point to another. Thus sound is wave motion itself.

Optics:

Optics is a branch of science which studies electromagnetic waves to which the eye responds (light). Propagation of light means the propagation of electromagnetic waves with varying electric and magnetic fields through a vacuum or a transparent medium. It has two broad branches: geometric optics and physical optics.

Electricity and Magnetism:

These topics are interrelated with each other. We have to take the help of another topic when we are studying one of them individually. Electricity deals with the forces on charged particles, the effect of such forces. It also studies the phenomenon caused by the motion of charged particles. Magnetism can have an effect on the electric current. magnetic materials can be used in producing electric currents. Electronics is the branch of electricity.

Modern Physics:

Modern physics is the branch of physics which deals with the recent developments in the science-related to physics such as Radioactivity, X-Rays, Cathode Rays, Atomic and Molecular Structure, Quantum Theory and wave mechanics, etc.

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1.1.1.3 Pioneers of Physics

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1.1.1.4 Click Here to find the List of Noble Prize Winners in Physics

Conclusion:

Physics is a branch of science that seeks to understand the fundamental principles governing the natural world, encompassing everything from the smallest particles to the largest galaxies. It involves the study of matter, energy, space, and time, as well as the interactions between these elements. Physicists explore the fundamental laws and forces that govern the behaviour of the universe and seek to explain and predict the observed phenomena. Physics relies heavily on mathematical models and experimental observations. The scientific method is a fundamental aspect of physics, involving the formulation of hypotheses, experimentation, and the development of theories that can be tested and refined through further observations and experiments.

Related Topics:

• 1.1.2 Scientific Methods
• 1.1.3 Scientific View
• 1.1.4 Physics and Other Sciences

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