In this article, we shall understand why does kinetic friction is smaller than the static friction and why it is easier to roll than solid. We shall also study some everyday examples in which friction is used.

To produce relative motion between two bodies in contact with each other we have to apply a larger force, but once the sliding motion begins a smaller force is sufficient to keep one body sliding over the other. This shows that kinetic friction is smaller than the static friction.

If instead of sliding one body rolls over the other, a very small force is required to maintain the rolling motion. This shows that rolling friction is smaller than the kinetic friction. Hence the order of magnitudes is as follows.  Static friction > kinetic friction > Rolling friction

It is Easy to Roll than to Slide:

The origin of the frictional force between two surfaces in contact is due to cold welded joints between the two surfaces at few points on the surface.

To create relative motion additional force is required to break these cold welded joints. This additional force explains the origin of friction and is called a force of friction.

When we are sliding the surfaces one over the other we are shearing the cold welded joints, while when we are rolling the surfaces one over other we are peeling the joints.

During sliding all cold welded joints of the surface should be broken at a time (shearing). While in rolling one line of cold-welded joints is to be broken at a time (peeling). Thus In the process of sheering more force is required than the process of peeling. which clearly indicates that it is always easy to roll than to slide.

Static friction is Greater Than Kinetic Friction:

The origin of the frictional force between two surfaces in contact is due to cold welded joints between the two surfaces at few points on the surface.

To create relative motion additional force is required to break these cold welded joints. This additional force explains the origin of friction and is called a force of friction.

During static friction the surfaces are at rest with respect to each other hence the cold welded joints are stabilised and are strong.

During kinetic friction the surfaces are in relative motion with respect to each other thus the cold welded joints are formed at one instant and broken at the other instant without giving any chance for stabilisation of the cold welded joints. Thus theses bonds are weak. Hence more force is required to overcome static friction than that required in case of kinetic friction. Hence Static friction is greater than kinetic friction

Tyres of Vehicles are Provided With Threads:

The frictional force between the two surfaces depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact.

The threads of the tyres help to increase friction between the tyre and road.

Due to this, the tyre can get a firm grip on the road and there is no danger of the car running off the road. Hence the tyres of the motor car are provided with threads.

Moving Parts of Machine are Kept Well Oiled:

When energy is supplied to the machine some energy is utilised to overcome the frictional force between the moving parts of the machine. Thus the efficiency of the machine reduces.

The frictional force between the two surfaces depends upon the nature of the surfaces in contact. It also depends on the lubrication between the two surfaces.

The presence of the oil as a lubricant between the two surfaces prevents direct contact between them. It also prevents interlocking of hills and dales on the surfaces of contact. Due to which the friction between the parts of the machine is reduced and the efficiency of machine increases. Hence, The moving parts of the machine are kept well oiled.

Wheels of a Vehicle are Provided with Ball Bearing:

If ball bearing is not used then the force of friction between two parts of the wheel will be that of sliding. This sliding friction is considerable and it causes a significant loss of energy.

If ball bearings are used; the sliding friction is converted into rolling friction, and rolling friction is very small compared to the sliding friction and hence it causes of smaller loss of energy. Hence the wheels of a vehicle are provided with ball bearing to reduce frictional force.

Bearings Used in a Machine are Made of a Different Material:

If two bodies of the same material are in contact with each other; their surfaces in contact have smaller irregularities and therefore the get firmly interlocked. Also, the intermolecular forces of attraction between the two surfaces of the same material are strong. Therefore the friction between the bodies is large.

On the other hand; if two bodies in contact are of different materials; their surface irregularities are dissimilar and hence they cannot get firmly interlocked. Also, intermolecular forces are not very strong hence friction between the bodies is not so large. Hence the bearings used in a machine are made of a different material.

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Science > Physics > Friction > Applications of Friction

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Friction or force of friction is a force which comes into existence when two bodies in contact have relative motion or tending to have relative with respect to each other and oppose the motion.

Characteristics of Friction:

• Force of friction is always opposites to the force causing the relative motion between the surface.
• Force of friction always acts at the points of contacts of the two surface.
• As the force causing motion increases the frictional force increases up to certain maximum value and that maximum value of the force of friction is called limiting friction.
• The frictional force is independent of the area of contacts.
• The frictional force is independent as nature of surface in contact.
• The frictional force depends on the nature of materials of surface in contact.
• Frictional force depends on lubrication.

Notes:

• Even there is no actual relative motion between the two bodies or surfaces the force of friction comes into play whenever the bodies are kept in contact
• Frictional force always opposes the motion.
• Friction is partially due to unevenness of the surfaces in contact and partially due to molecular attraction between the molecules of the two surfaces in contact.
• If the contact surfaces are made very smooth, it still does not minimise the frictional forces, because in this case the intermolecular forces of attraction increase due to better contact.
• Force of friction is greater in case of two surfaces made of the same material as in this case the forces of attraction between the molecules of the surfaces are cohesive forces which are greater than the adhesive forces.
• Frictional force when the body is at rest or on the verge of motion is called static friction whereas when the body is in motion the frictional force is called the kinetic friction.

Friction a Self-Adjusting Force:

Friction is a force which comes into existence when two bodies in contact have relative motion or tending to have relative with respect to each other and oppose the motion.

When the applied force is zero, the force of friction also equal to zero. If the applied force is slowly increased, the force of friction, in the same proportion up to a particular limit. This force is called the limiting force of friction. Within this limit, the force of friction is exactly equal and opposite to the applied force.

If the direction of the applied force is changed the direction of the force of friction also changes in such a way that it is opposite to the direction of the applied force.

Thus the magnitude and direction of frictional force depend upon the magnitude and direction of the applied force. Hence we can say that the force friction is called self-adjusting force. Hence the force of friction does not have an independent existence. It comes into play only when the applied force produces or tends to product relative motion between two bodies in contact.

Origin of Friction:

Earlier it was assumed that the force of friction between two surfaces in contact comes into existence due to roughness of the surfaces.

When the two surface seems to be in contact actually there is no surface to surface contact. It is due to the fact that irrespective of smoothness of the surface, it contains hills & dales (Projections and depressions). This unevenness of the surface can be observed under a microscope. These surface irregularities have the effect of interlocking the surfaces thereby opposing the relative motion of the two surfaces with respect to each other. This opposition contributes to frictional force in a small extent.

A major contribution to the frictional force can be explained on the basis of molecular theory. Due to hills and dales, there is no surface to surface contact but there is point contact. Due to point contact there exist a very high pressure at contact points. Due to high pressure, the molecules of the two surfaces at the point of contact get cold-welded and thus the bonding exists between the two surfaces in contact.

When the two surfaces in contact tend to have relative motion with respect to each other these bonds or cold-welded and joints do not allow them to so.  To create relative motion additional force is required to break these cold welded joints. This additional force explains the origin of friction and is called a force of friction.

Types of Friction:

There are three types of friction: a) Static friction  b) Kinetic friction  c) Rolling friction

Static Friction:

The frictional force which exists between the two surfaces which are at rest or which are on the verge of relative motion with respect to each other is called the static friction.

Kinetic Friction (Dynamic Friction):

The frictional force which exists between two surfaces in contact having relative motion with respect to each other is called kinetic or dynamic friction.

Rolling Friction:

The frictional force which exists between two surfaces in contact, when one body rolls over the other.

Laws of Static Friction:

• Limiting static friction between any pair of dry unlubricated surfaces is independent of the apparent area in contact.
• Limiting static friction between any pair of unlubricated surfaces depends on nature and material of the surfaces in contact.
• Limiting static friction between any pair of dry unlubricated surfaces is directly proportional to the normal reaction.

If F_S is static friction and R (N) is a normal reaction.

Then, F_S   ∝  R

∴ F_S  = μ_S R

Where,  μ_S = coefficient of static friction.

∴ μ_S  =  F_S /R

The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of the limiting static friction to the normal reaction.

Laws of Kinetic Friction:

• Kinetic friction between any pair of a dry unlubricated surface is independent of the apparent area in contact.
• Kinetic friction between any pair of dry unlubricated surfaces depends on the nature of the material in contact.
• Kinetic friction between any pair of the dry unlubricated surface is directly proportional to the normal reaction.

If F_k is kinetic friction and R (N) is a normal reaction.

Then, F_k   ∝  R

∴ F_k  = μ_k R

Where,  μ_k = coefficient of static friction.

∴ μ_S  =  F_k /R

The coefficient of Kinetic friction is defined as the ratio of the kinetic friction to the normal reaction.

Experiment to verify the law that the limiting force of friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction the two surfaces in contact.

A wooden horizontal plane with a pulley attached to one end is taken and kept on a table. A wooden block is placed on the horizontal surface. A string is tied to the weight and is passed over the pulley and a pan is attached to its free end.

Weight is added to the pan until the block began to slide. The sum of the weight of the pan and the weight put in it is equal to the limiting force of friction. The normal reaction is equal to the weight of the block.

Some weight is put on the block and the procedure is repeated as given above. In this case, the normal reaction is equal to the weight of the block plus the weight put on it. Let us call it R1, Let the corresponding frictional force be f1. The experiment is repeated with different weights on the block. If f, f1, f2, f3, ….. are the frictional forces and R, R1, R2, R3, ….. are the corresponding normal reactions then it is found that

Thus, in general  f/R = Constant

This relation proves that the limiting force of friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction. Thus the law is verified

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Example – 01:

To what angle must a racing track of radius of curvature 600 m be banked so as to be suitable for a maximum speed of 180 km/h?

Given: maximum speed v = 180 km/hr = 180 x 5/18 = 50 m/s, Radius of curvature = r = 600 m,  g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find: Angle of banking = θ =?

Solution:

Ans: Angle of banking = 23° 18’

Example – 02:

A curve in the road is in the form of an arc of a circle of radius 400 m. At what angle should the surface of the road be laid inclined to the horizontal so that the resultant reaction of the surface acting on a car running at 120 km/h is normal to the surface of the road?

Given: speed of the car = v = 120 km/hr = 120 x 5/18 = 33.33 m/s, radius of curve = r = 400m, g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find:  Angle of banking = θ = ?

Solution:

Ans: Angle of banking = 15° 49’

Example – 03:

A train of mass 10⁵ kg rounds a curve of radius 150 m at a speed of 20m/s. Find the horizontal thrust on the outer rail if the track is not banked. At what angle must the track be banked in order that there is no thrust on the rail? g= 9.8 m/s².

Given: mass of train = m = 10⁵ kg, velocity of train = v = 20 m/s, radius of curve = r = 400m, g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find: Horizontal thrust = F =?  Angle of banking = θ = ?

Solution:

The horizontal thrust is equal to the centripetal force in magnitude.

Ans: Horizontal thrust = 2.67 x 105 N, the angle of banking = 15° 13’

Example – 04:

The radius of curvature of a metre gauge railway line at a place where the train is moving at 36 km/h is 50m. If there is no side thrust on the rails find the elevation of the outer rail above the inner rail.

Given: speed of train = v = 36 km/hr = 36 x 5/18 = 10 m/s, radius of curve = r = 50m,   g = 9.8 m/s², For metre gauge, distance between rail = l   = 1 m.

To Find: elevation = h =?

Solution:

Ans: The elevation of outer rail over inner rail = 0.2 m

Example – 05:

Find the angle of banking of the railway track of radius of curvature 3200 m if there is no side thrust on the rails for a train running at 144 km/h. Find the elevation of the outer rail above the inner one if the distance between the rails is 1.6 m.

Given: Speed of train = v = 144 km/hr = 144 x 5/18 = 40 m/s, radius of curve = r = 3200m, g = 9.8 m/s², distance between rail = l = 1.6 m.

To find: Angle of banking = θ =? Elevation = h =?

Solution:

Ans: The angle of banking = 2°55’, the elevation of outer rail over inner rail = 81 mm

Example – 06:

A metre gauge train is moving at 60 km/hr along a curved rod of a radius of curvature 500m at a certain place. Find the elevation of outer rail over the inner rail, so that there is no side pressure on the rail. (g = 9.8 m/s²)

Given: Speed of train = 60 kmph = 60 x 5/18 =16.67 m/s, radius of curve = r = 500 m, distance between rail = l = 1 m. g = 9.8 m/s²

To find: elevation of outer rail over the inner rail = h =?

Solution: 

The angle of banking is given by

Elevation h = l sinθ =  1 x sin (3^o15’) = 1x 0.0567 =0.0567 m = 5.67 cm

Ans: The angle of banking is 3^o15’ and the elevation of outer rail over the inner rail is 5.67 cm

Example – 07:

A vehicle enters a circular bend of radius 200 m at 72 km/h. The road surface at the bend is banked at 10°. Is it safe? At what angle should the road surface be ideally banked for safe driving at this speed? If the road is 5m wide, what should be the elevation of the outer edge of the road surface above the inner edge?

Given: Speed of vehicle = v = 72 km/hr = 72 x 5/18 = 20 m/s, Angle of banking = θ = 10°, radius of curve = r = 200 m, g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find:  Part – I: To check safety, part – II: nagle of banking = θ =? for given speed, elevation = h =?

Solution:

Part – I:

Now, the velocity of the vehicle (20 m/s) is greater than the safe velocity (18.59 m/s). Hence it is unsafe to drive at a speed 72 km/hr.

Part – II:

Ans: It is unsafe to drive at the speed 72 km/hr. The angle of banking for speed 72 km/hr = 11°32’, Elevation of the outer edge over inner edge = 1m

Example – 07:

Find the minimum radius of an arc of a circle that can be negotiated by a motorcycle, riding at 21 m/s if the coefficient of friction between the tyres and the ground is 0.3. What is the angle made with the vertical by the motorcyclist? g = 9.8 m/s².

Given: Velocity of motor cycle = v = 21 m/s, Coefficient of friction = μ  = 0.3,  g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find: radius of curvature = r =?,  Angle with vertical = θ= ?

Solution:

Necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction between the road and tyres.

Ans: Radius of the circular path = 150 m, Angle made by the motorcyclist with vertical = 16°42’

Example – 08:

What is the angle of banking necessary for a curved road of 50 m radius for safe driving at 54 km/h? If the road is not banked, what is the coefficient of friction necessary between the road surface and tyres for safe driving at this speed?

Given: velocity of vehicle = v = 54 km/hr = 54 x 5/18 = 15 m/s, radius of curve = r = 50m, g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find: Angle of banking = θ =? coefficient of friction = μ = ?

Solution:

When the road is not banked, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction between the road and tyres.

Ans: The angle of banking = 24°42’, the coefficient of friction = 0.4592

Example – 09:

A motorcyclist at a speed of 5 m/s is describing a circle of radius 25 m. Find his inclination with the vertical. What is the value of the coefficient of friction between the road and tyres?

Given: Speed of motor cycle = v = 5 m/s, radius of circle = r = 25 m, g = 9.8 m/s²,

To find:  Angle of inclination = θ=? Coefficient of friction = μ = ?

Solution:

Necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction between the road and tyres.

Ans: Angle made with the vertical = 5°49’, The coefficient of friction = 0.1020

Example – 10:

A motor van weighing 4400 kg rounds a level curve of radius 200 m on the unbanked road at 60 km/hr. What should be the minimum value of the coefficient of friction to prevent skidding? At what angle the road should be banked for this velocity?

Given: Mass of vehicle = m = 4400 kg, velocity of vehicle = v = 60 km/hr = 60 x 5/18 = 16.67 m/s, r = 200m,  g = 9.8 m/s²

To Find:  Coefficient of friction = μ =?, Angle of banking = θ = ?,

Solution:

Necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction between the road and tyres.

Ans: The coefficient of friction = 0.1418, The angle of banking = 8°4’

Example – 11:

A circular road course track has a radius of 500 m and is banked to 10°. If the coefficient of friction between the road and tyre is 0.25. Compute (i) the maximum speed to avoid slipping (ii) optimum speed to avoid wear and tear of the tyres.

Solution:

Given: radius of curve = r = 500m, Angle of banking = θ = 10°, coefficient of friction = μ = 0.25, g = 9.8 m/s²,

To find: safe velocity = v =? to avoid wear and tear v = ?

Maximum sped to avoid slipping.

Maximum speed to avoid wear and tear

Ans: The maximum velocity to avoid skidding = 46.74 m/s, The maximum velocity to avoid wear and tear of tyres. = 29.39 m/s.

Example – 06:

An aircraft in level flight completes a circular turn in 100 seconds. What is the radius of the circular turn? What is the angle of banking, if the velocity of aircraft is 40 m/s?

Given: Time taken = T = 100 s. velocity of aircraft = 40 m/s.

To Find: radius of circular turn = ?, angle of banking = θ = ?

Solution:

100 seconds are taken to complete a circular turn (circumference)

Ans: The angle of banking of aircraft is 14°25′

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In this article, we shall study the necessity of the banking of road and the factors affecting it.

Safe Velocity of a Vehicle on an Unbanked Road:

The necessary centripetal force required to negotiate a turn by a vehicle moving along a horizontal unbanked curved road is provided by the force of friction between the wheels (tyres) and the surface of the road.

Let us consider a vehicle of a mass ‘m’ is moving along a horizontal curved road of radius ‘r’ with speed ‘v’.

Let μ be the coefficient of friction between the road surface and the wheels then

This expression gives the maximum speed with which a vehicle can be moved safely along a horizontal curved road. If speed is more than this velocity, then there is a danger that the vehicle will get thrown (skid) off the road.

Thus the safe velocity on the unbanked road depends on the coefficient of friction between the road and tyres, the radius of the circular path, and acceleration due to gravity at that place.

Banking of Road:

To make the turning of a vehicle on a curved road safer, the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner edge making some inclination with the horizontal. This is known as banking of road.

When the road is banked then, the inclination of the surface of the road with the horizontal is known as the angle of banking.

Necessity of Banking of Road:

• As the speed of vehicle increases, the centripetal force needed for the circular motion of vehicle also increases. In the case of unbanked road necessary centripetal force is provided by the friction between the tyres and the surface of the road. But there is a maximum limit for frictional force, which depends on the coefficient of friction between the wheels and road.
• When the centripetal force needed exceeds the maximum limit of frictional force, the vehicle skids and tries to go off the curved path resulting in an accident.
• Without proper friction, a vehicle will not be able to move on the curved road with a large speed. To avoid this we may increase the force of friction making the road rough. However, this results in the wear and tear of the tyres of the vehicle. Also, the force of friction is not always reliable because it changes when roads are oily or wet due to rains etc. To eliminate this difficulty, the curved roads are generally banked.
• Due to banking of the road, the necessary centripetal force is provided by the component of the normal reaction.

The Expression for the Angle of Banking of Road:

Consider a vehicle of mass ‘m’ is moving with speed ‘v’ on a banked road of radius ‘r’ as shown in the figure. Let ‘θ’ be the angle of banking. The weight “mg” of the vehicle acts vertically downwards through its centre of gravity G, and N is the normal reaction exerted on the vehicle by banked road AC. N is perpendicular to road AC. Let ‘f’ be the frictional force between the road and the tyres of the vehicle.

Now, the normal reaction is resolved into two components (N cosθ) along the vertical (acting vertically upward) and (N sinθ) along the horizontal (towards left) as shown in the figure. Similarly, the frictional force ‘f’ can be resolved into two components (f sinθ) along the vertical (acting vertically downward) and( f cosθ) along the horizontal (towards left) as shown in the figure.

The free-body diagram of a car is as follows

Considering equilibrium

Total upward force = Total downward force

∴   N cosθ  = mg + f sinθ

∴ mg = N cosθ – f sinθ ….. (1)

The horizontal components N sinθ  and f cosθ  provides the necessary centripetal force

mv²/r = N sinθ + f cosθ …… (2)

Dividing equation (2) by (1)

Now, frictional force f  = μ_sN
Where μ_s = coefficient of friction between road and tyres

This is an expression for the velocity of a vehicle on a curved banked road.

Note:

For the given pair of road and tyre μ_s = tan λ, where λ = angle of friction

Case – I: When the road is horizontal θ = 0°

This is an expression for safe velocity on the unbanked road

Case – II:

When the frictional force between the road and tyres of the vehicle is negligible μ_s = 0.

This is an expression for the angle of banking of a road.

When friction is not mentioned in the problem, use this expression to solve the problems.

Safe Velocity on Banked Road:

The expression for safe velocity on the banked road is

The speed will be maximum when tan θ = 1 i.e. θ = 45°. It means the vehicle can be driven with maximum safe speed only when the angle of banking = 45°.

Factors affecting the angle of banking:

• The angle of banking depends on the speed of the vehicle, the radius of the curved road and the acceleration due to gravity g at that place.
• The expression does not contain the term m representing mass, thus the angle of banking is independent of mass ‘m’ of the vehicle. Thus the angle of banking is the same for heavy and light vehicles.
• the angle of banking depends on the radius (r) of the curved road. The angle of banking is inversely proportional to the radius of curvature.
• For the given radius of the curve, the angle of banking increases with the speed.
• For the given radius of the curve and speed of the vehicle angle of banking is inversely proportional to the acceleration due to gravity at that place. The acceleration due to gravity is more on the pole than that at the equator. Thus for the given radius of the curve and speed of the vehicle angle of banking is less at the pole than that at the equator.

If l is the width of the banked road, then the elevation of an outer edge of the road over the inner edge (provided angle of banking is small) is given by h = l sinθ

In actual practice, some frictional forces are always present even on the banked road. So that the actual safe velocity is always greater than the calculated safe velocity on the banked road.

Characteristics of Angle of Banking:

• The angle of banking is given by

• The angle of banking depends on the speed of the vehicle, the radius of the curved road and the acceleration due to gravity g at that place.
• The angle of banking is independent of mass ‘m’ of the vehicle. Thus the angle of banking is the same for heavy and light vehicles.
• the angle of banking is directly proportional to the square of the velocity (v) of the vehicle, inversely proportional to the radius (r) of curvature of the path and inversely proportional to the acceleration due to gravity (g) at that place.
• The acceleration due to gravity is more on the pole than that at the equator. Thus for the given radius of the curve and speed of the vehicle angle of banking is less at the pole than that at the equator.
• The elevation outer edge of a banked road above the inner edge is given by

h = l sinθ

Characteristics of Safe Velocity on Banked Road:

• The safe velocity on the banked road is given by

• The safe velocity of a vehicle on the banked road depends on the radius of the curved road, the angle of banking, and the acceleration due to gravity g at that place.
• Safe velocity is independent of mass ‘m’ of the vehicle. Thus it is the same for heavy and light vehicles.
• For the given radius of the curve and angle of banking, the safe velocity is more at the pole than that at the equator.

High Speed on Unbanked Road:

• During motorcycle race, the riders negotiate the curve on a flat road in that case they have to tilt their motorcycle and themselves to compensate the angle of banking at that place.

• A cycling race track is called velodrome which has a saucer-shaped track. The rider has to take a position on a track as per his/her speed.

Overturning of Vehicle:

Unbanked Road:

When a vehicle moves along a curved path with very high speed, then there is a chance of overturning of the vehicle. Inner wheel leaves ground first. Let a vehicle of a  mass ‘m’ is negotiating a turn along a curved path of radius ‘r’ with speed ‘v’. Let ‘2a’ be the length of the axle i.e. the distance between the two wheels. Let h be the height of the centre of gravity of the vehicle above the ground. Let R₁ and R₂ be the reactions on the inner wheel and outer wheel of the vehicle exerted by the road surface.

The frictional force ‘F’ provides the necessary centripetal force.

Taking the moment of forces about the centre of gravity ‘G’

Fh  + R₁a = R₂a  ………… (2)

Reactions are balanced by the weight of the vehicle

R₁ + R₂ = mg …….. (3)

Solving equations |(1), (2) and (3)

From these equations, we can see that as the speed increases reaction R₁ decreases while reaction R₂ increases. When reaction R1 is zero overturnings of the vehicle takes place.

This is an expression for maximum velocity of the vehicle by which it can be driven beyond which overturning of the vehicle takes place.

Banked Road:

If μ < d/h, vehicle skids and if μ >d/h, vehicle overturns

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