In the last article, we have studied the significance of chemistry and its branches. In this article, we shall study the chemical classification of substances.

Matter and its Different States:

The matter is any substances that have mass and that occupies space. There are three states of matter.

• Solid: It has a definite shape and volume at given temperature and pressure.
• Liquid: It will take the shape of the container, thus has indefinite shape but has a definite volume.
• Gas: Gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.

Note: Besides these three standard states, there are two more states called plasma state (Exists at very high temperature) and Bose-Einstein condensate (Exists at very cold condition).

Depending upon the chemical composition matter is classified into two types a) Pure substances and b) Mixtures.

Pure substances are further classified into elements (e.g. iron, oxygen) and compounds (e.g. sodium hydroxide, ammonia).This classification was given by a French chemist Lavoisier. While the mixtures are further classified into homogeneous mixtures (e.g. a common salt solution in water)and heterogeneous mixtures (e.g. muddy water).

Pure Substances:

A pure substance is the one which is made up of molecules containing the same kind of atoms. Let us consider the case of pure water. In pure water, all molecules are made up of two hydrogens and one oxygen. Pure substances are further classified into elements and compounds.

All pure substances are homogeneous. But all homogeneous substances are not pure. For e.g. If we consider water its composition is same everywhere, thus it is homogeneous. If we take lime water its composition may be the same everywhere but it is not a pure substance. It is a mixture of water and lime juice.

Characteristics of the Pure Substances:

• They have fixed composition.
• They cannot be separated into simpler substances.
• They can only be changed in identity and properties.
• Their properties do not vary.

Elements:

An element may be defined as a pure substance which can neither be decomposed into nor built from simpler substances by any physical or chemical method. Now atom is considered a fundamental unit of matter. Hence an element may be defined as a pure substance which is made up of one kind of atom.

This definition fails to explain modern techniques and processes like nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and artificial transmutations in nuclear chemistry.

There are presently 118 different elements known. Every element has been given a definite name and a definite symbol. A symbol is a small abbreviation to represent a full and lengthy name of the element. For example: element Nitrogen is represented by the symbol N, element Calcium is represented by the symbol Ca, etc.

Out of 118 elements known, 89 have been isolated from natural sources and the remaining have been prepared by artificial means in laboratories. These elements are called man-made elements. Only ten of naturally occurring elements make up 99% mass of the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmospheres.

Characteristics of Elements:

• They cannot be divided into simpler substances.
• They cannot be built from simpler substances.
• They can only be changed in identity and properties.
• Their properties do not vary.

Classification of Elements:

Based on nature, elements are classified into three types: a) Metals, b) Non-metals, and c) Metalloids.

Metals::

These are generally solids (exceptions mercury and gallium). Examples: Copper, iron, aluminium, zinc, etc.

They have characteristics such as high density, high melting and boiling points, hardness, malleability, high tensile strength, lustre, and the ability to conduct heat and electricity. They react with mineral acids and liberate hydrogen. They form basic oxides. They form non-volatile hydrides if combine with hydrogen.

Note that lithium, sodium, potassium possess low density.

Non-metals:

These are generally non-lustrous. Examples: Sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen, hydrogen. Six of the non-metals viz: carbon, boron, phosphorous, sulphur, selenium, and iodine are solids. Bromine is the only liquid non-metal at room temperature and pressure. The remaining non-metals: nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon are gases.

Generally, they are brittle, non-lustrous, have low melting and boiling points, non-conductors of heat and electricity. They form acidic or neutral oxides. They do not react with mineral acids to liberate hydrogen. They are capable of forming volatile hydrides.

Note that hydrogen and graphite are good conductors of electricity.

Metalloids: 

These elements have characteristics common to metals as well as non-metals. Examples: Arsenic, tin, bismuth, antimony, silicon, tellurium.

Notes:

• Metals rarely combine with one other.
• Non-metals combine with one another to form compounds.
• Metals and Non-metals commonly combine with each other to form compounds.

Atomicity of an Element:

The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity. Based on their atomicity they are classified as

• Monoatomic elements: e.g. Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Aluminium (Al), Helium (He), Neon(Ne), Boron (B), Carbon (C).
• Diatomic elements: Hydrogen (H₂), Chlorine (Cl₂), Oxygen (O₂).
• Polyatomic elements: Ozone (O₃), Phosphorous (P₄), Sulphur (S₈).

Differences Between Metals and Non-Metals:

Compounds:

A compound may be defined as a pure substance which can be decomposed into simpler substances by some suitable chemical method. A compound is formed by the combination of two or more elements in a definite proportion of a mass.

Examples:  Water (H₂O) is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass respectively. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a compound of carbon and oxygen in the ratio 3:8 by mass respectively.

Characteristics of Compounds:

• The constituents of a compound are always present in a fixed ratio by mass.
• A compound is always homogeneous in nature.
• The properties of the compound are different from those of its constituent elements.
• The constituents of a compound cannot be separated by simple mechanical means. Energy in the form of light, heat or electricity is required to separate them.
• Compounds are formed as a result of a chemical change.
• The formation of a compound is always accompanied by absorption or evolution of heat, light, or electrical energy.
• Compounds in their purest form have sharp boiling and melting point.

Types of Compounds:

Organic Compounds: The compounds obtained from living sources (organisms) are called organic compounds. Nowadays the term organic compounds refer to compounds of carbon and hydrogen (Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

Inorganic Compounds: The compounds obtained from non-living sources such as rocks and minerals are called inorganic compounds. Compounds of all elements except hydrocarbons and their derivatives are included in this type of compound.

It is to be noted that the number of organic compounds is very large compared to inorganic compounds.

Mixtures:

Mixtures can be defined as substances which are made up of two or more pure substances. They can possess variable composition and can be separated into constituent components by some suitable physical means.

Example: Crude oil, air

Classification of Mixtures:

Mixtures are classified into two types

Homogeneous Mixtures: Homogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which have the same composition throughout. These mixtures are also known as solutions. The constituents of homogeneous mixtures are distributed uniformly throughout. The constituents of such mixtures cannot be seen even under the microscope.  Examples: Air, gasoline, sea water, stainless steel, brass, coloured glass etc.

Heterogeneous Mixtures: Heterogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which have different composition at different parts.  The constituents of heterogeneous mixtures are not distributed uniformly throughout. The constituents of such mixtures can be seen even by naked eyes or with the help of a microscope.  Examples: Mixture of iron filings and sulphur, muddy water, a mixture of sand and sugar etc.

Difference Between Homogeneous Mixtures and Heterogeneous Mixtures:

Characteristics of Mixtures:

• The constituents of the mixture may be present in any ratio.
• Mixtures may or may not be homogeneous in nature.
• The properties of constituents remain the same even in mixture form.
• The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple mechanical or physical means.
• Mixtures are formed as a result of a physical change.6. The formation of a mixture is not accompanied by absorption or evolution of heat, light, or electrical energy.
• Mixtures don’t have sharp boiling and melting point.

In the next article, we shall study different methods of separation of constituents of a mixture.

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There are three states of matter, solid, liquid and gaseous. Liquids and gases are called fluids because of their ability to flow. The fluidity in both of these states is due to the fact that the molecules are free to move about. The free mobility of the molecules is due to weak intermolecular forces. In this article series, we shall discuss the solid state of a substance.

The constituent particles in solids have fixed positions and can only oscillate about their mean positions. This explains the rigidity in solids. It is due to strong intermolecular forces. A solid may be defined as a form of matter in which the ions, atoms or molecules are held strongly that they cannot easily move away from each other. Hence solid is a rigid form of matter which has a definite shape and a definite volume.

Characteristics of Solid State:

• Solids have a definite shape and volume. Generally, their density is also definite
• Solids are heavier than liquids and gases. (Exception: ice is lighter than water).
• There are strong cohesive forces (inter-particle forces) between the molecules of solid. The forces between the constituent molecules are stronger than those in liquids and gases.
• The molecules of solid are fixed at one point. Thus they are held tightly at a position by intermolecular forces of attraction. Hence solids can’t be poured. The diffusion of solid is negligible.
• Inter-particle distances are short.
• All pure solids have a characteristic melting point which depends on intermolecular forces of attraction. It is above the room temperature at the atmospheric pressure.
• Most of the solids are hard, incompressible and rigid.
• the vapour pressure of solid is much less than the vapour pressure of liquids at a definite temperature. The particles near the surface may possess sufficient kinetic energy to detach from bulk and enter in the vapour state.

Classification of Solids:

On the basis of the nature of order present in the arrangement of their constituent particles, solids can be classified as crystalline or amorphous

Crystalline Solids:

A crystalline solid is a substance whose constituent particles possess a regular orderly long-range arrangement.

Examples: Sodium chloride, sucrose (cane sugar), diamond, quartz, naphthalene, benzoic acid, copper, potassium nitrate, etc.

A crystalline solid usually consists of a large number of small crystals, each of them having a definite characteristic geometrical shape. The arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) is ordered and repeats itself periodically over the entire crystal.

Characteristics of Crystalline Solids:

• A crystalline solid usually consists of a large number of small crystals, each of them having a definite characteristic geometrical shape.
• Crystalline solids have a sharp melting point.
• Crystalline solids are anisotropic in nature, that is, some of their physical properties like electrical resistance or refractive index show different values when measured along different directions in the same crystals. This arises due to a different arrangement of particles in different directions.
• Crystalline solids can be cleaved along a definite plane, hence we get clean cleavage in case of crystalline solids.

• These are considered as true solids.
• Cooling curves of crystalline solids are not smooth, there are breakpoints in the curve.

• The heat of fusion is definite and depends upon the arrangement of the particles in the crystalline solids.

Formation of Allotropes:

When a substance exists in two or more forms then they are called allotropes. They are polymorphous.

Example: Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon.

Some substances take a different arrangement of particles in the solid-state giving rise to different crystal structures. These different crystalline forms of a substance are known as polymorphic forms or polymorphs. Carbon exists in two crystalline forms diamond and graphite. Sulphur exists in different polymorphic forms, like monoclinic sulphur and rhombic sulphur.

A phenomenon in which when a single substance crystallizes in two or more forms under different conditions of solidification is called polymorphism and the crystals showing polymorphism are called polymorphous.

Examples: Silica forms many polymorphs such as ∝-quartz, ß-quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, coesite, and stishovite.

A phenomenon in which two or more crystalline substances show same crystalline structure is called isomorphism and the crystals showing isomorphism are called isomorphous.

Examples: a) K₂SO₄ and K₂SeO₄   and b) NaCl and KCl

Melting of Crystalline Solids:

When a crystalline solid is heated slowly, the temperature of the solid rises gradually until it reaches the melting point. At the melting point, it liquifies suddenly. On cooling the liquid formed, the regular geometric shapes appear again and solid is formed.

Sharp Melting Point of Crystalline Solids:

In a crystal, the arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) is ordered which repeats itself periodically over the entire crystal. Due to a regular pattern, the interatomic and intermolecular forces are identical. Hence the thermal energy required to break these bonds (i.e. regular structure) is uniform throughout. Hence the heat and temperature required to melt crystalline solid is uniform. Hence crystalline solids have sharp melting points.

Amorphous Solids:

An amorphous solid (Greek Omorphe = no form or shapeless) consists of particles of irregular shape. A substance whose constituent particles do not possess an orderly arrangement is called an amorphous solid.

Examples: glass, plastics, rubber, starch, Teflon, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyurethane, etc.

The arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) in such a solid has only short-range order. In such an arrangement, a regular and periodically repeating pattern is observed over short distances only. Such portions are scattered.

Amorphous solids in many respects resemble liquids which flow very slowly at room temperature and can be considered as supercooled liquids in which cohesive forces are almost as strong as solids.

Due to the short-range order of regular pattern in amorphous solids, the small part of it behaves like crystalline solid. These small parts of amorphous solid behaving like crystalline solid are called crystallites.

Characteristics of Amorphous Solids:

• The arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) in such a solid has only short-range order.
• The melting point is not sharp. They melt over a range of temperature and can be moulded and blown into various shapes.
• Amorphous solids are isotropic like liquids. It is because there is no long-range order in them and arrangement is irregular along all the directions. Therefore, the value of any physical property would be the same along any direction
• We get irregular cleavage in case of amorphous solids.

• These are pseudo solids or supercooled liquids.
• The cooling curves of amorphous solids are smooth, without any break

• The heat of fusion is not definite.

Uses of Amorphous Solids:

• Amorphous silica is used in a photovoltaic cell which has the capacity to convert quantum energy from light into electrical energy.
• Glass is amorphous solid, which has wide applications in everyday life and also has industrial uses.
• Chemistry of amorphous substance is used in the manufacturing concept of plastic, rubber, ceramics.
• An unbreakable glass is an amorphous substance.

No Sharp Melting Point of Amorphous Solids:

The arrangement of constituent particles (atoms, molecules or ions) in such a solid has only short-range order. Due to the irregular pattern, the interatomic and intermolecular forces are different at different places. Hence the thermal energy required to break these bonds (i.e. regular structure) is not uniform throughout.

Hence the heat and temperature required to melt crystalline solid are not uniform. Hence amorphous solids do not have sharp melting points.

Polycrystalline Solids:

Some solids like aluminium and steel have a structure which is intermediate between crystalline and amorphous. They contain crystal consisting of small units with a definite and regular arrangement but the crystals themselves are randomly arranged.

Note:

Glass panes fixed to windows or doors of old buildings are invariably found to be slightly thicker at the bottom than at the top. This is because the glass flows down very slowly and makes the bottom portion slightly thicker.

Interconversion Between Crystalline and Amorphous Substance

Any crystalline solid can be changed into amorphous form by melting it and cooling the molten mass rapidly. An amorphous substance can be converted into crystalline form by melting it and allowed to cool slowly. Old glasses becomes translucent due to a small extent of crystallization.

Comparative Study of Crystalline and Amorphous Solids:

Terminology:

Isotropy:

The ability of amorphous solids to exhibit identical physical properties when measured in different directions is called isotropy. This property is due to no long-range order of regular pattern arrangement in them. Thus the arrangement is irregular.

Anisotropy:

The ability of crystalline solids to change their physical properties when measured in different directions is called anisotropy. Some of the physical properties of such solids like electrical resistance or refractive index show different values when measured along different directions in the same crystals. This arises from the different arrangement of particles in different directions.

The electrical resistance of anisotropic solid will be different along line AB and along line CD

Glass:

Glass is an optically transparent material produced by fusing together silicon oxide with sodium oxide, boron oxide. Trace of transition metal oxide is added to impart colour to the glass. By changing composition 800 types of glasses are produced. Quartz is obtained from silicon oxide only.

The composition of different types of glasses is as given below

• Pyrex glass:  60 to 80 % SiO₂, 10 to 20 % B₂O₃, remaining Al₂O₃.
• Soda lime glass :  75% SiO₂, 15 % Na₂O, 10 % CaO

The Different oxides used to impart colour to glass are Gold, copper (Red), UO₂ (Yellow), CaO, CuO (Blue) and Fe₂O₃, CuO (Green).

Ice is lighter than water:

The structure of liquid water and solid ice is identical. Ice has a hexagonal three-dimensional crystal structure formed due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding. It leaves about 50 % space vacant. On melting the hydrogen bond between the molecules break and free molecule occupy the empty space which is not utilized in solid ice. Thus the volume of the formed liquid is quite less than the volume of the ice. Thus the density of liquid water is more than that of solid ice. i.e. solid ice is lighter than liquid water.

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