In this articles we shall study about different kinds of medical specialists. Medical specialists are experts in certain fields of medicine. They either treat specific parts of the body, such as the back or the brain, or they specialize in certain diseases, such as cancer. Family doctors keep a list of local specialists and can help patients choose the right specialist for each medical issue.

General Practitioners and Physicians:

General Physician or Family Practitioner:

General Physicians are highly trained specialists who provide a range of non-surgical health care to adult patients. He/she treats many different medical conditions and ailments on an outpatient basis.

They care for difficult, serious or unusual medical problems and continue to see the patient until these problems have resolved or stabilized. They are popularly known as a ‘general practitioner’ or a ‘family physician’ in many countries.

Anesthesiologist:

An anesthesiologist is a doctor who practices anesthesia. Anesthesiologists are physicians specializing in perioperative care, developing anesthetic plans, and the administration of anesthetics. Anesthesiologists help ensure the safety of patients undergoing surgery.

The anesthesiologist provides care for the patient to prevent the pain and distress they would otherwise experience. He/she is responsible for keeping the patient anesthetized (sedated) and for monitoring the vital signs like airway, breathing and circulation during surgery. They monitor input and output during the surgery like delivery of intravenous fluids, blood and other drugs.

Surgeons:

A surgeon is a doctor who specializes in evaluating and treating conditions that may require surgery, or physically changing the human body. Surgeries can be done to diagnose or treat disease or injury.

• : General surgeons are doctors who specialize in surgical procedures. Surgery is any procedure that alters body tissues to diagnose or treat a medical condition. 
• Cardiothoracic Surgeon: A cardiothoracic surgeon is a medical doctor who specializes in surgical procedures of the heart, lungs, esophagus, and other organs in the chest. This includes surgeons who can be called cardiac surgeons, cardiovascular surgeons, general thoracic surgeons, and congenital heart surgeons.
• Neuro-Surgeon: Neurosurgeons are medical doctors that diagnose and treat conditions related to  the brain, spine, and other parts of your nervous system. 
• Oral or Maxillofacial Surgeon: Maxillofacial surgeons, sometimes called oral and maxillofacial surgeons, are trained to handle a wide variety of conditions and injuries that affect the head, neck, mouth, jaw, and face.
• Otolaryngologist Surgeon: Otolaryngologist Surgeon treats issues in ears, nose, or throat as well as related areas in the head and neck. They can do surgeries in these areas.
• Surgical Oncologist: They are surgical counterparts of medical oncologist. They are general surgeons with specialty training in procedures for diagnosing, staging (determining the stage of cancer), or removing cancerous growths.
• Pediatric Surgeon: Pediatric surgeons are doctors who specialize in treating children. They’re trained to do operations on infants, children, and young adults. 
• Plastic Surgeon: Plastic surgeons are focused on reconstructive procedures. They can treat patients who have conditions like birth disorders, injuries, illnesses, or burns. Many plastic surgeons choose to become cosmetic surgeons and do procedures to change a patient’s appearance or aesthetic.
• Orthopedic Surgeon: An orthopedic surgeon is qualified to diagnose orthopedic problems, perform or prescribe treatments, and assist with rehabilitation. 
• Vascular Surgeon: Vascular surgeons are doctors who treat diseases and problems within the vascular system, the network of arteries and veins that carry blood throughout the body. 

Internal Medicine Practitioner/ Internist:

Internal medicine physicians, or internists, are specialists who apply scientific knowledge and clinical expertise to the diagnosis, treatment, and compassionate care of adults across the spectrum from health to complex illness.

They are especially well trained in the diagnosis of puzzling medical problems, in the ongoing care of chronic illnesses, and in caring for patients with more than one disease. Internists also specialize in health promotion and disease prevention. He/she deals with the diagnosis, management and non-surgical treatment of unusual and serious diseases.

Doctors Treating Children:

Pediatrician:

A pediatrician is a medical doctor who manages the physical, behavioral, and mental care for children from birth until age 18. A pediatrician is trained to diagnose and treat a broad range of childhood illnesses, from minor health problems to serious diseases.

They focus on the prevention, detection and management of physical, behavioral, developmental and social problems that affect children. They work to diagnose and treat infections, injuries, and many types of organic disease and dysfunction and bring about improvement in the life of children with chronic problems.

Neonatologist:

A neonatologist is a specialist in caring for premature and ill newborns and generally works in hospital’s neo-natal care or baby special care units. Newborns can present a unique set of health challenges that require a high level of skill and medical expertise to treat.

This specialist does tests to make sure that newborn babies are well- developed and free from infections and organ deformities.

Pediatric Cardiologist:

Pediatric cardiologists specialize in diagnosing and treating heart problems in children. In those children who might need heart surgery, pediatric cardiologists work closely with pediatric heart surgeons to determine the best treatments and interventions.

Pediatric Endocrinologist:

Pediatric endocrinologist specialize in diagnosing and treating hormone or gland problems in children.

Pediatric Oncologist:

Pediatric oncologists are doctors who diagnose and treat cancer in children and teens.

Doctors Treating Old People:

Geriatrician:

Geriatricians are primary care doctors who have additional training in treating older adults, especially those 65 and up. People in that age range often have multiple or complex health matters and need specialized care.

Geriatrician at times requires to take an interdisciplinary approach to a problem as many patients suffer from not only medical but have social problems too. A Geriatrician may work with other physicians, nurses, social workers, occupational therapists and family members to take care of the needs of his patient.

Gerontologist:

A gerontologist is a doctor studying and treating conditions arising in the aging process. He mostly works with senior citizens, studying their biological, medical and social issues at that age. These specialists work in hospitals, nursing homes and laboratories and may form a part of government health policies for the old. A gerontologist is a licensed physician and diagnoses and treats old age diseases like Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson disease and osteoporosis.

Doctors Treating Heart and Vascular Problems:

Cardiologist:

Cardiologists are qualified to treat heart attacks, heart failure, heart valve disease, arrhythmia, and high blood pressure. He may collaborate with cardiac surgeons to decide the course of treatment for his patients.

Cardiology is a specialty, which has many subspecialties like interventional cardiology, nuclear cardiology, electro physiology, or echocardiography, which help in making diagnostic studies.

Vascular Medical Specialist:

Vascular surgeons are doctors who treat diseases and problems within the vascular system, the network of arteries and veins that carry blood throughout the body. 

Doctors Treating Hormone/Gland Problems:

Endocrinologist:

Endocrinologists are doctors who specialize in glands and the hormones they make. They deal with metabolism, or all the biochemical processes that make the body work, including how the body changes food into energy and how it grows.

He/she diagnoses and treat diseases like diabetes, thyroid diseases, metabolic disorders, over or under production of hormones, menopause, osteoporosis, hypertension, cholesterol disorders, infertility, lack of growth and endocrine glands cancer..

Doctors Treating Stomach/ Liver/Bowel, Colon Related Problems:

Gastroenterologist:

A Gastroenterologist is a physician with dedicated training management of diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and liver. They are specialist in digestive diseases.

He/she is mainly concerned about the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions and disorders in the gastrointestinal tract involving the esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, rectum, liver and pancreas of adults.

Hepatologist:

Hepatologists are medical doctors who diagnose, treat, and manage problems associated with liver, gallbladder, bile ducts, and pancreas. He deals in disorders like serious and chronic hepatitis, chronic alcoholism, and liver disorders due to certain medications.

Colorectal Surgeon:

Colorectal surgeon is a doctor, who treats disorders of the rectum, anus, and colon.

Doctors Treating Kidney and Urinary System:

Urologist:

A Urologist specializes and treats the urinary tract problems of both men and women and on the reproductive organs of men.

He/she treats problems in the urinary system, which includes kidneys, bladder, ureters, and urethra. He also treats a man’s reproductive system, which includes the penis, testes, scrotum, and prostate.

Nephrologist:

Nephrologists are doctors who specialize in conditions that affect the kidney. They diagnose, treat, and manage acute and chronic kidney problems and diseases. They also treat associated issues like high blood pressure, fluid retention, and electrolyte and mineral imbalances. In addition, these specialists are in charge of kidney dialysis treatment.

Doctors Treating Reproduction / Sex Problems:

Andrologist:

Andrologists are urologists who focus entirely on the treatment of conditions affecting male fertility and sexuality, rather than practicing a broader form of urology.

This specialty includes the treatment of physical conditions affecting the genitalia, such as undescended testes, as well as injuries and diseases that can affect fertility or sexual function.

Gynecologist:

A gynecologist is a doctor who specializes in female reproductive health. They diagnose and treat issues related to the female reproductive tract. This includes the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries and breasts. They diagnose and treat reproductive system disorders such as endometriosis, infertility, ovarian cysts, and pelvic pain.

They may also care for people with ovarian, cervical, and other reproductive cancers.

Obstetrician:

An obstetrician is a specialist who has specialized in the management of pregnancy, labor, childbirth, and a woman’s reproductive system. They also called an OB/GYN.

They take care throughout pregnancy, and give follow-up care.

Sexologist:

A sexologist is a person who has studied human sexuality. Sexologists have studied the science of sex, which means they have studied human anatomy and physiology (how the body works and why) and psychology (how our minds work) regarding sexuality. Sexologists help people with all things to do with sexuality.

Fertility Specialist:

Fertility specialists are obstetrician or gynecologists who have undergone specialized training for reproductive endocrinology. 

Venereologist:

Venereologists deal with the study and treatment of sexually transmitted diseases caused by sexual contact. A person may just be a carrier without realizing it or may actively suffer the symptoms. They may be engaged in research working out methods of prevention, and innovations in treatment. These specialists may have to deal with social issues and moral norms at times in certain societies, however they do play an important role in educating the patients, their family and general public about sexual infections and diseases and about their preventive measures.

Doctors Treating Immunology/ Allergy Problems:

Allergist:

Allergists are doctors who specialize in treating allergies and other immune problems. As allergies are an overreaction of the immune system, allergists must have a thorough understanding of how your body fights infection to treat the hypersensitivity that leads to allergies.

Immunologist:

Immunologists are doctors who diagnose, treat, and work to prevent immune system disorders. They study the complex immune system consisting of cells and molecules that help fight infection. These specialists treat people born with a defective immune system or those that acquire a defective immune system when they are affected by virus, bacteria and fungi that do not affect healthy persons.

Doctors Treating Cancer:

Medical Oncologist:

Medical oncologist deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer. He/she takes care of cancer patients by using things like chemotherapy, hormone therapy, targeted therapy, or immunotherapy.

Radiation Oncologist:

Radiation oncologists work closely with medical oncologists, surgeons, and other doctors to determine the most appropriate course of treatment for people diagnosed with cancer. Before performing radiation procedures, radiation oncologists use software to carefully map out where they will deliver radiation to their patients. They also decide which type of radiation therapy to use.

Surgical Oncologist:

They are surgical counterparts of medical oncologist. They are general surgeons with specialty training in procedures for diagnosing, staging (determining the stage of cancer), or removing cancerous growths.

Doctors Treating Lungs and Blood Problems:

Pulmonologist:

A pulmonologist is a doctor who diagnoses and treats diseases of the respiratory system viz: the lungs and other organs that help to breathe. They are concerned with diseases of the respiratory tract, bronchial tubes and lungs as well as the heart. These specialists have extensive training in chest diseases and conditions such as pneumonia, asthma, tuberculosis, emphysema, or complicated chest infections.

Hematologist:

Hematologists are internal medicine doctors or pediatricians who have extra training in disorders related to your blood, bone marrow, and lymphatic system. They may work in specialized areas that aid in diagnosis like electrophoresis, flow cytometry, or coagulation.

Doctors Treating Brain/Nervous System Problems:

Neurologist:

Neurologists are doctors who diagnose and treat problems with the brain and nervous system. neurologists focus on non-surgical treatment.  Neurologists may also specialize in dealing with dementia, epilepsy, headache medicine, Parkinson and Movement Disorders, or Sleep Disorders.

Neuro Surgeon:

Neurosurgeons are medical doctors that diagnose and treat conditions related to the brain, spine, and other parts of your nervous system. They are specifically trained and certified in the use of surgical treatments.

Doctors Treating Joints / Bones/ Muscle Problems:

Orthopedist:

Orthopedist is a doctor who specializes in the branch of medicine concerned with the correction or prevention of deformities, disorders, or injuries of the skeleton and associated structures

Orthopedic Surgeon:

An orthopedic surgeon is qualified to diagnose orthopedic problems, perform or prescribe treatments, and assist with rehabilitation. They also help to develop long-term strategies to treat illnesses, disorders, and issues relating to bones, joints, ligaments, tendons, and muscles. These specialists help treat broken bones, joint problems, like arthritis, and degenerative conditions, like osteoporosis. In addition orthopedic doctors treat sports injuries, infections or congenital conditions related to, and tumors in the bones.

Rheumatologist:

A rheumatologist is a medical practitioner who specializes in treating arthritis, rheumatic diseases, systemic autoimmune diseases and conditions involving the bone, joints and muscles. Since many of these diseases involve the immune system, rheumatologist have an in-depth knowledge of the immune system. Rheumatologists work closely with their patients and orthopedic surgeons, neuro-surgeons, and radiologists who perform joint replacements, soft tissue reconstruction and repair and nerve decompression, and report on X-rays, CT, MRI and ultrasound scans.

Podiatrist:

Podiatrists are medical specialists who help with problems that affect feet or lower legs. They can treat injuries as well as complications from ongoing health issues like diabetes. Podiatrists deal in painful feet irritations like corns, bunions, plantar warts, plantar fasciitis, hammertoes, arch problems and circulatory problems in diabetics.

Osteopath:

Osteopathic medicine is a special science devoted to treating and healing the patient as a whole by using methods called osteopathic manipulative treatment to make sure the body moves freely ensuring that all the body’s healing systems are working efficiently.  Osteopath, is a doctor of osteopathic medicine (DO) who aims to improve people’s overall health and wellness by treating the whole person, not just a condition or disease they may have. This includes osteopathic manipulative medicine, which involves stretching, massaging, and moving the musculoskeletal system.

Doctors Treating Problems of Specific Part of Body:

Otolaryngologist ENT Surgeon:

Otolaryngologist is a doctor who treats issues related to ears, nose, or throat as well as related areas in head and neck. They’re called ENT Specialist for short.

Audiologist:

Audiologists are healthcare professionals who specialize in hearing and balance disorders.

Dentist:

A dentist, also known as a dental surgeon, is a health care professional who specializes in dentistry (the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases and conditions of the oral cavity).

Periodontist:

A periodontist is a dentist who specializes in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of periodontal disease (a chronic inflammatory disease that affects the gums and bone supporting the teeth also known as gum disease), and in the placement of dental implants.

Dermatologist:

A dermatologist is a doctor who specializes in conditions involving the skin, hair, and nails. He/she deals with not only study, research and diagnosis of normal disorders, diseases, cancers, cosmetic and ageing condition of the skin, hair and nails but also includes specializations like dermato-histopathology and topical and systemic medications. It also includes dermatological cosmetic surgery, immunotherapy, laser therapy, radiotherapy and photodynamic therapy. Common skin diseases treated by dermatologists include skin cancer, warts, fungal infections, dermatitis, psoriasis, acne, atomic eczema and herpes simplex.

Ophthalmologist:

Ophthalmologists are medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of eye and vision problems. He/she is a specialist trained in the medical and surgical preventive care of the eyes. He is well trained in giving comprehensive care by carrying out visual examinations, prescribing glasses and contact lens and treating eye ailments and diseases such as glaucoma, cataracts, eye injuries, cornea disorders and also eyelid problems.

Doctors Treating Problems with Blood / Due to Parasites:

Parasitologist:

Parasitologists study the life cycle of parasites, the parasite-host relationship, and how parasites adapt to different environments. They may investigate the outbreak and control of parasitic diseases. They study protozoan and metazoan parasites and try to find ways to spread disease. They work in a close relationship with other sciences such as immunology, cell biology, microbiology, and molecular biology

Microbiologists

A microbiologist works is a lab personnel engaged in the study and analysis of the structure and processes of microorganisms. They may also be engaged in collecting and analyzing cultures and air, water and soil samples to learn about the microorganisms present in them. They work to develop vaccines, biological medicines and biofuels.

Epidemiologist:

Epidemiologists study outbreaks of diseases, the causes, locations, and how various communities are affected, utilizing relative information to aid in the prevention of future outbreaks. Epidemiologists help to keep the public informed of methods to maintain and improve public health. 

Serologist:

A serologist is a medical scientist who specializes in blood serum analysis. He is often associated with forensic investigations related to criminal inquiries, but may also be instrumental in medical diagnostic procedures. A serologist may also examine and analyze blood found in the place of a crime also. A serologist carries on a wide range of laboratory tests by carrying on specific antigen and antibody reactions.

Doctors Treating Psychological Problems:

Psychiatrist:

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specializes in the mental health field. He/she deals with rge prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of mental, behavioral, and emotional disorders. He helps to enhance the quality of a person’s life by making assessments of the mind and emotions, providing treatment and rehabilitation care to mentally disturbed patients. They may also deal with phobias of all types. They may offer a mix of treatment in some cases, which includes medication, psychotherapy, and counseling.

• General Psychiatrist: General Psychiatrist is a medical professional who specializes in the study, treatment and diagnosis of mental disorder and behavioural problems.
• Neuropsychiatrists: Neuropsychiatrists is a medical professional who specializes in mental and brain health.
• Geriatric Psychiatrist: Geriatric Psychiatrist is a medical professional who specializes in mental complications in elderly individuals.
• Forensic Psychiatrists: Forensic Psychiatrists  is a medical professional who specializes in the study of correlation between psychology and crime.

Supporting Specialists:

Diagnostician:

A Diagnostician is a doctor who diagnoses and treats medical conditions and solves complex medical mysteries. All Doctors are technically Diagnosticians because they diagnose ailments.

Pathologist:

A pathologist is a specialist who examines body tissues and fluids to analyze the origin of a disease. A pathologist generally works in laboratories on samples collected for investigation and helps physicians and surgeons to diagnose diseases. Such pathologists are called clinical pathologists. Other works of area are anatomical pathology, molecular pathology, surgical pathology, forensic pathology and speech pathology.

Paleopathologist:

Paleopathologists studies evidence of trauma, disease and congenital defects in human remains. This group of specialists may be drawn from archaeologists, geneticists, and physical anthropologists. These specialists research the prehistoric or ancient populations, but also study epidemics in prehistoric times.

Radiologist:

Radiologists are medical doctors that specialize in diagnosing and treating injuries and diseases using medical imaging (radiology) procedures (exams/tests) such as X-rays, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography (PET) and ultrasound.

Nuclear Medicine Practitioner:

Nuclear medicine physicians, also called nuclear radiologists, are medical specialists that use tracers, usually radiopharmaceuticals administered by injection, swallowing, or inhalation for diagnosis and therapy. These RA tracers are attracted to specific parts of the body and show up as gamma rays detected externally by cameras. Nuclear medicine imaging procedures have been successful in identifying abnormalities much earlier than radiological procedures. Nuclear medicine practitioners carry on bone scans to examine orthopedic injuries, fractures, tumors, or unexplained bone pain and heart scans to identify normal or abnormal blood flow to the heart muscle, measure heart function or determine the existence or extent of damage to the heart muscle after a heart attack. Besides they conduct breast scans to locate cancerous tissues in the breast, and liver, gall bladder and kidney scans to judge the functioning of liver, gallbladder and kidney. Besides they also carry on thyroid and lung scans and also scans to detect the causes of gastrointestinal bleeding.

Diabetologist:

A Diabetologist is a doctor who specializes in the treatment of Diabetes, which is a metabolic disorder and, therefore, forms a part of endocrinology. He deals and specializes in diseases and conditions like diabetes mellitus type 1, diabetes mellitus type 2, non-insulin dependent diabetes, hyperglycemia, hypoglycemia, diabetic ketoacidosis, arteriosclerosis, peripheral neuropathy, foot ulcer and diabetic retinopathy. He may also deal in gestational diabetes.

Dietician:

A dietitian, is an expert in identifying and treating disease-related malnutrition and in conducting medical nutrition therapy. He/she is an expert in the field of food and nutrition. Many individuals, companies, families, schools, hospitals and other institutions seek their help to make meal plans that could be healthy, cost-effective and beneficial to them. They can also help one to plan their diet to lose weight.

Physiotherapist:

A physiotherapist, or physical therapist, works with patients to help them manage pain, balance, mobility, and motor function. He/she helps patients who have been disabled by injury, illness and age to gain their normal range of movements, prevent further damage and increase their functionality. A physiotherapist diagnoses the patient’s problem and helps the patient to do physical exercises that would tone his muscles and strengthen them. They may also do massages and stretch the patient’s muscles and offer advice regarding nutrition, body conditioning and prophylactic care.

Forensic Medicine Expert or Coroner:

A Forensic Medicine Expert or Coroner is a medical professional who works in coordination with others like a coronary investigator to determine the cause of death of a person who may have died in mysterious circumstances. This medical examiner is responsible for performing actual autopsy on the body, while a coroner investigator examines the body, the scene of the crime. So coroner investigators may be from the medical profession, law or with training in criminal law.

Toxicologist:

A toxicologist is engaged in the development and implementation of laboratory and field studies to find out the short- and long- term effects of different toxins on human beings, animals, plants and the environment. He/she also thinks of ways and means to eliminate and minimize the negative effects of the already existing toxins.

Geneticist / Clinical Geneticist:

A clinical geneticist is a medical specialist who applies his knowledge of genetics and is skilled enough to evaluate birth defects, genetic disorders, familial cancers and chromosomal abnormalities. They work closely with genetic counsellors to support patients, families and clinical teams in the management of genetic conditions. Clinical geneticists help identify families at possible risk of a genetic condition by assessing a patient’s physical features and medical history, gathering and analyzing family history and inheritance patterns and calculating chances of recurrence. They provide information about genetic testing and related procedures. A clinical geneticist could easily advice on options, including treatment options, for patients when the doctor suspects a genetic problem.

Physiologist:

Physiologists are highly trained medical person with zeal and expertise in studying how humans, plants, animals and cell function. A physiologist generally focuses on the functioning of the human body such as energy procurement and utilization, blood circulation, excretion, defence systems against infection, repair mechanisms reproduction, nutrition, digestion, absorption, metabolism and diseases.

Conclusion:

This long list of medical specialties and subspecialties shows the many options students have for making their career in medicine. Select a career that challenges you, aligns with your career goals, and provides your desired lifestyle. Narrowing down your options and working toward your intended field of medicine early on in your medical school journey can give you an advantage.

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Female Foeticide:

Female foeticide is the procedure of abortion to terminate a female foetus from the womb of the mother before taking birth after the sex recognition tests like an ultrasound scan. The census figures not only indicates the imbalance in the sex ratio, but it also indicates, the casual approach of society to all women. It is the cruellest on the part of society not to allow a female child to be born.

Major Reasons for Female Foeticide:

• Patrilineal line of succession
• Dowry system, violence against women
• Low status of women
• Preference for son due to financial security
• Small family norm
• Religious and social taboos
• Misuse of diagnostic techniques.

Impact of Female Foeticide:

• The sex ratio denotes the ratio of females to males in a specific region. As per the decennial Indian census, the Sex Ratio of India is 107.48. It means 107.48 males per 100 females in 2019.
• It increases number of crimes against women

The Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994:

Objects of PCPNDT Act:

• To prevent misuse of Pre-conception and Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques for sex determination leading to female feticide and arrest the declining sex ratio in India.
• To ensure the implementation of all promotional schemes for girl children at the district level.
• To Monitor and evaluate the implementation of the PCPNDT Act through community participation.
• To ensure accountability of implementing agencies through monitoring implementation of the Act through community participation.
• To track pregnancies, MTPs, and birth registration with the help of Anganwadi workers, ASHAs.
• To identify violators of the Act through conducting detailed audits of form ‘F’ filled in for the pregnant women in the clinics.
• To develop a national, state, and district annual Plan.

Salient Features of the PCPNDT Act:

1. This Act No. 57 of 1994 was enacted by the Parliament of India, It assented on 20 September 1994 and it commenced on 1st January 1996.It is applicable to the whole of India. 
2. The Act provides for the prohibition of sex selection, before or after conception.
3. It regulates the use of pre-natal diagnostic techniques, like ultrasound and amniocentesis by allowing them their use only to detect: Genetic abnormalities, metabolic disorders, chromosomal abnormalities, certain congenital malformations, haemoglobinopathies and sex-linked disorders.
4. No laboratory or centre or clinic will conduct any test including ultrasonography for the purpose of determining the sex of the foetus.
5. No person, including the one who is conducting the procedure as per the law, will communicate the sex of the foetus to the pregnant woman or her relatives by words, signs or any other method.
6. Any person who puts an advertisement for pre-natal and pre-conception sex determination facilities in the form of a notice, circular, label, wrapper or any document, or advertises through the interior or other media in electronic or print form or engages in any visible representation made by means of hoarding, wall painting, signal, light, sound, smoke or gas, can be imprisoned for up to three years and fined Rs. 10,000.

Important Definitions of the Act:

Conceptus:

According to Section 2(ba) of the PCPNDT Act ”conceptus” means any product of conception at any stage of development from fertilization until birth including extra-embryonic membranes as well as the embryo or foetus.

Embryo:

According to Section 2(bb) of the PCPNDT Act, “embryo” means a developing human organism after fertilization till the end of eight weeks (fifty-six days).

Foetus:

According to Section 2(bc) of the PCPNDT Act  “foetus” means a human organism during the period of its development beginning on the fifty-seventh day following fertilization or creation (excluding any time in which its development has been suspended) and ending at the birth.

Generic Counselling Centre:

According to Section 2(c) of the PCPNDT Act “Genetic Counseling Centre” means an institute, hospital, nursing home or any place, by whatever name called, which provides for genetic counselling to patients.

Genetic Clinic:

According to Section 2(d) of the PCPNDT Act “Genetic Clinic” means a clinic, institute, hospital, nursing home or any place, by whatever name called, which is used for conducting pre-natal diagnostic procedures.

The explanation attached to the definition lays down that for the purposes of this clause, “Genetic Clinic’ includes a vehicle, where ultrasound machine or imaging machine or scanner or other equipment capable of determining the sex of the foetus or portable equipment which has the potential for detection of sex during pregnancy or selection of sex before conception, is used.

Genetic Laboratory:

According to Section 2(e) of the PCPNDT Act “Genetic Laboratory” means a laboratory and includes a place where facilities are provided for conducting analysis or tests of samples received from Genetic Clinic for a pre-natal diagnostic test.

The explanation attached to the definition lays down that for the purposes of this clause, “Genetic Laboratory’ includes a place where ultrasound machine or imaging machine or scanner or other equipment capable of determining the sex of the foetus or portable equipment which has the potential for detection of sex during pregnancy or selection of sex before conception, is used.

Gynaecologist:

According to Section 2(f) of the PCPNDT Act, “Gynaecologist” means a person who possesses a post- graduate qualification in gynaecology and obstetrics.

Medical Geneticist:

According to Section 2(g) of the PCPNDT Act, “Medical geneticist” includes a person who possesses a degree or diploma in genetic science in the fields of sex selection and pre-natal diagnostic techniques or has experience of not less than two years in such field after obtaining— (i) any one of the medical qualifications recognised under the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 (102 of 1956); or (ii) a post-graduate degree in biological sciences.

Pediatrician:

According to Section 2(h) of the PCPNDT Act, “Pediatrician” means a person who possesses a post-graduate qualification in pediatrics.

Pre-natal Diagnostic Procedures:

According to Section 2(i) of the PCPNDT Act “pre-natal diagnostic procedures” means all gynaecological or obstetrical or medical procedures such as ultrasonography, foetoscopy, taking or removing samples of amniotic fluid, chorionic villi, blood or any other tissue or fluid of a man, or of a woman for being sent to a Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic for conducting any type of analysis or pre-natal diagnostic tests for selection of sex before or after conception;

Pre-natal Diagnostic Test:

According to Section 2(k) of the PCPNDT Act “pre-natal diagnostic test” means ultrasonography or any test or analysis of amniotic fluid, chorionic villi, blood or any tissue or fluid of a pregnant woman or conceptus conducted to detect genetic or metabolic disorders or chromosomal abnormalities or congenital anomalies or haemoglobinopathies or sex-linked diseases.

According to Section 2(j) of the PCPNDT Act “pre-natal diagnostic techniques” includes all pre-natal diagnostic procedures and pre-natal diagnostic tests.

Registered Medical Practitioner:

According to Section 2(m) of the PCPNDT Act “registered medical practitioner” means a medical practitioner who possesses any recognised PNDT Act, 1994 & Amendments medical qualification as defined in clause (h) of section 2 of the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956, (102 of 1956.) and whose name has been entered in a State Medical Register.

Sex Selection:

According to Section 2(o) of the PCPNDT Act, “sex selection” includes any procedure, technique, test or administration or prescription or provision of anything for the purpose of ensuring or increasing the probability that an embryo will be of a particular sex.

Sonologist or Imaging Specialist:

According to Section 2(p) of the PCPNDT Act “sonologist or imaging specialist” means a person who possesses any one of the medical qualifications recognized under the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956 or who possesses a postgraduate qualification in ultrasonography or imaging techniques or radiology.

Situations that Allow the Conduct of Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques:

Pre-natal diagnostic techniques shall be made use of only for the detection of the following:

• Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Genetic Metabolic Diseases
• Haemoglobinopathies
• Sex-Linked Genetic Diseases
• Congenital Anomalies
• Any Other Abnormalities or diseases as may be specified by the Central Supervisory Board

Regulation of Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories and Genetic Clinics:

According to Section 3 of the Act,

1. no Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic unless registered under this Act, shall conduct or associate with, or help in, conducting activities relating to prenatal diagnostic techniques;
2. no Genetic Counselling Centre or Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic shall employ or cause to be employed or take services of any person, whether on honorary basis or on payment who does not possess qualifications as may be prescribed;
3. no medical geneticist, gynaecologist, paediatrician, registered medical practitioner or any other person shall conduct or cause to be conducted or aid in conducting by himself or through any other person, any pre-natal diagnostic techniques at a place other than a place registered under this Act.

Prohibition of Sex Selection:

According to Section 3 of the Act, no person, including a specialist or a team of specialists in the field of infertility, shall conduct or cause to be conducted or aid in conducting by himself or by any other person, sex selection on a woman or a man or on both or on any tissue, embryo, conceptus, fluid or gametes derived from either or both of them.

Prohibition on Sale of Ultrasound Machines, etc., to Persons, Laboratories, Clinics, etc. Not Registered Under the Act:

According to Section 3B of the Act, no person shall sell any ultrasound machine or imaging machine or scanner or any other equipment capable of detecting sex of foetus to any Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory, Genetic Clinic or any other person not registered under the Act.

Regulation and Pre-conditions to Use and Conduct Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques:

Following conditions are prescribed in Chapter III Section 4 of the Act

1. No place including a registered Genetic Counselling Centre or Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic shall be used or caused to be used by any person for conducting pre-natal diagnostic techniques except for the purposes specified in clause (2) and after satisfying any of the conditions specified in clause (3);

2. No pre-natal diagnostic techniques shall be conducted except for the purposes of detection of any of the following abnormalities, namely:—

• chromosomal abnormalities;
• genetic metabolic diseases;
• haemoglobinopathies;
• sex-linked genetic diseases;
• congenital anomalies;
• any other abnormalities or diseases as may be specified by the Central Supervisory Board;

3. No pre-natal diagnostic techniques shall be used or conducted unless the person qualified to do so is satisfied for reasons to be recorded in writing that any of the following conditions are fulfilled, namely:

• age of the pregnant woman is above thirty-five years;
• the pregnant woman has undergone of two or more spontaneous abortions or foetal loss;
• the pregnant woman had been exposed to potentially teratogenic agents such as drugs, radiation, infection or chemicals;
• the pregnant woman or her spouse has a family history of mental retardation or physical deformities such as, spasticity or any other genetic disease;
• any other condition as may be specified by the Central Supervisory Board;

4. No person including a relative or husband of the pregnant woman shall seek or encourage the conduct of any pre-natal diagnostic techniques on her except for the purposes specified in clause (2).

5.No person including a relative or husband of a woman shall seek or encourage the conduct of any sex-selection technique on her or him or both.

Written consent of Pregnant Woman and Prohibition of Communicating the Sex of Foetus:

According to Section 5 of the Act,

 1. No person referred to in clause (2) of section 3 shall conduct the pre-natal diagnostic procedures unless— PNDT Act, 1994 & Amendments

(a) he has explained all known side and after effects of such procedures to the pregnant woman concerned;

(b) he has obtained in the prescribed form her written consent to undergo such procedures in the language which she understands; and

(c) a copy of her written consent obtained under clause (b) is given to the pregnant woman.

2. No person including the person conducting pre-natal diagnostic procedures shall communicate to the pregnant woman concerned or her relatives or any other person the sex of the foetus by words, signs or in any other manner.

Determination of Sex Prohibited:

According to Section 6 of the Act,

(a) no Genetic Counselling Centre or Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic shall conduct or cause to be conducted in its Centre, Laboratory or Clinic, pre-natal diagnostic techniques including ultrasonography, for the purpose of determining the sex of a foetus;

(b) no person shall conduct or cause to be conducted any pre-natal diagnostic techniques including ultrasonography for the purpose of determining the sex of a foetus;

(c) no person shall, by whatever means, cause or allow to be caused selection of sex before or after conception.

Central Supervisory Board:

According to Section 7 of the Act, the Central Government shall constitute a Board to be known as the Central Supervisory Board to exercise the powers and perform the functions conferred on the Board under this Act.

Functions and Powers of Central Supervisory Board:

According to Section 16 of the Act, the followings are the functions of the Central Supervisory Board:

• to advise the Central Government on policy matters relating to use of pre-natal diagnostic techniques, sex selection techniques and against their misuse;
• to review and monitor implementation of the Act and rules made thereunder and recommend to the Central Government changes in the said Act and rules;
• to create public awareness against the practice of pre-conception sex selection and prenatal determination of sex of foetus leading to female foeticide;
• to lay down code of conduct to be observed by persons working at Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories and Genetic Clinics;
• to oversee the performance of various bodies constituted under the Act and take appropriate steps to ensure its proper and effective implementation;
• any other functions as may be prescribed under the Act.

State Supervisory Board and Union Territory Supervisory Board:

According to Section 16A of the Act, each State and Union territory having Legislature shall constitute a Board to be known as the State Supervisory Board or the Union territory Supervisory Board, as the case may be, to exercise the powers and perform the functions conferred on the Board under this Act.

Functions of State Supervisory Board and Union Territory Supervisory Board:

According to Section 16A of the Act, the followings are the functions of the State Supervisory Board and Union Territory Supervisory Board:

• to create public awareness against the practice of pre-conception sex selection and pre-natal determination of sex of foetus leading to female foeticide in the State;
• to review the activities of the Appropriate Authorities functioning in the State and recommend appropriate action against them;
• to monitor the implementation of provisions of the Act and the rules and make suitable recommendations relating thereto, to the Board;
• send such consolidated reports as may be prescribed in respect of the various activities undertaken in the State under the Act to the Board and the Central Government; and
• any other functions as may be prescribed under the Act.

Registration and Suspension of Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories or Genetic Clinics:

Registration of Genetic Counselling Centres, Genetic Laboratories or Genetic Clinics:

According to Section 18 of the Act:

• No person shall open any Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic, including clinic, laboratory or centre having ultrasound or imaging machine or scanner or any other technology capable of undertaking determination of sex of the foetus and sex selection, or render services to any of them, after the commencement of the Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Amendment Act, 2002 unless such centre, laboratory or clinic is duly registered under the Act.
• Every application for registration under sub-section (1), shall be made to the Appropriate Authority in such form and in such manner and shall be accompanied by such fees as may be prescribed.
• Every Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic engaged, either partly or exclusively, in counselling or conducting pre-natal diagnostic techniques for any of the purposes mentioned in section 4, immediately before the commencement of this Act, shall apply for registration within sixty days from the date of such commencement.
• Subject to the provisions of section 6, every Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic engaged in counselling or conducting pre-natal diagnostic techniques shall cease to conduct any such counselling or technique on the expiry of six months from the date of commencement of this Act unless such Centre, Laboratory or Clinic has applied for registration and is so registered separately or jointly or till such application is disposed of, whichever is earlier.
• No Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic shall be registered under this Act unless the Appropriate Authority is satisfied that such Centre, Laboratory or Clinic is in a position to provide such facilities, maintain such equipment and standards as may be prescribed.

Certificate of Registration:

According to Section 19 of the Act:

• The Appropriate Authority shall, after holding an inquiry and after satisfying itself that the applicant has complied with all the requirements of this Act and the Rules made thereunder and having regard to the advice of the Advisory Committee in this behalf, grant a certificate of registration in the prescribed form jointly or separately to the Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic, as the case may be.
• If, after the inquiry and after giving an opportunity of being heard to the applicant and having regard to the advice of the Advisory Committee, the Appropriate Authority is satisfied that the applicant has not complied with the requirements of this Act or the rules, it shall, for reasons to be recorded in writing, reject the application for registration.
• Every certificate of registration shall be renewed in such manner and after such period and on payment of such fees as may be prescribed.
• The certificate of registration shall be displayed by the registered Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic in a conspicuous place at its place of business.

Cancellation or Suspension of Registration:

According to Section 20 of the Act:

• The Appropriate Authority may suo moto, or on the complaint, issue a notice to the Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic to show cause why its registration should not be suspended or cancelled for the reasons mentioned in the notice.
• If, after giving a reasonable opportunity of being heard to the Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic and having regard to the advice of the Advisory Committee, the Appropriate Authority is satisfied that there has been a breach of the provisions of this Act or the rules, it may, without prejudice to any criminal action that it may take against such Centre, Laboratory or Clinic, suspend its registration for such period as it may think fit or cancel its registration, as the case may be.
• Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-sections (1) and (2), if the Appropriate Authority is, of the opinion that it is necessary or expedient so to do in the public interest, it may, for reasons to be recorded in writing, suspend the registration of any Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic without issuing any such notice referred to in sub-section (1).

Appeal Against Suspension:

According to Section 21 of the Act:

The Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic may, within thirty days from the date of receipt of the order of suspension or cancellation of registration passed by the Appropriate Authority under section 20, prefer an appeal against such order to—

• the Central Government, where the appeal is against the order of the Central Appropriate Authority; and
• the State Government, where the appeal is against the order of the State Appropriate Authority, in the prescribed manner.

Prohibition of advertisement relating to pre-natal determination of sex and punishment for contravention:

According to Section 22 of the Act:

1. No person, organization, Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic, including clinic, laboratory or centre having ultrasound machine or imaging machine or scanner or any other technology capable of undertaking determination of sex of foetus or sex selection shall issue, publish, distribute, communicate or cause to be issued, published, distributed or communicated any advertisement, in any form, including internet, regarding facilities of pre-natal determination of sex or sex selection before conception available at such centre, laboratory, clinic or at any other place.
2. No person or organization including Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory or Genetic Clinic shall issue, publish, distribute, communicate or cause to be issued, published, distributed or communicated any advertisement in any manner regarding pre-natal determination or preconception selection of sex by any means whatsoever, scientific or otherwise.
3. Any person who contravenes the provisions of sub-section (1) or sub-section (2) shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees.

Explanation.—For the purposes of this section, “advertisement” includes any notice, circular, label, wrapper or any other document including advertisement through internet or any other media in electronic or print form and also includes any visible representation made by means of any hoarding, wall-painting, signal, light, sound, smoke or gas.

Offences, Penalties and Cognizance:

Offences and Penalties:

According to Section 23 of the Act:

1. Any medical geneticist, gynaecologist, registered medical practitioner or any person who owns a Genetic Counselling Centre, a Genetic Laboratory or a Genetic Clinic or is employed in such a Centre, Laboratory or Clinic and renders his professional or technical services to or at such a Centre, Laboratory or Clinic, whether on an honorary basis or otherwise, and who contravenes any of the provisions of this Act or rules made thereunder shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees and on any subsequent conviction, with imprisonment which may extend to five years and with fine which may extend to fifty thousand rupees.
2. The name of the registered medical practitioner shall be reported by the Appropriate Authority to the State Medical Council concerned for taking necessary action including suspension of the registration if the charges are framed by the court and till the case is disposed of and on conviction for removal of his name from the register of the Council for a period of five years for the first offence and permanently for the subsequent offence.
3. Any person who seeks the aid of a Genetic Counselling Centre, Genetic Laboratory, Genetic Clinic or ultrasound clinic or imaging clinic or of a medical geneticist, gynaecologist, sonologist or imaging specialist or registered medical practitioner or any other person for sex selection or for conducting pre- natal diagnostic techniques on any pregnant women for the purposes other than those specified in sub-section (2) of section 4, he shall, be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to fifty thousand rupees for the first offence and for any subsequent offence with imprisonment which may extend to five years and with fine which may extend to one lakh rupees.
4. For the removal of doubts, it is hereby provided, that the provisions of sub-section (3) shall not apply to the woman who was compelled to undergo such diagnostic techniques or such selection.

Cognizance of Offence:

According to Section 27 of the Act, every offence under this Act shall be cognizable, non-bailable and non-compoundable.

Who Can Take Cognizance:

According to Section 28 of the Act:

1. No court shall take cognizance of an offence under this Act except on a complaint made by— (a) the Appropriate Authority concerned, or any officer authorised in this behalf by the Central Government or State Government, as the case may be, or the Appropriate Authority; or (b) a person who has given notice of not less than fifteen days in the manner prescribed, to the Appropriate Authority, of the alleged offence and of his intention to make a complaint to the court.

Explanation.—For the purpose of this clause, “person” includes a social organisation.

• No court other than that of a Metropolitan Magistrate or a Judicial Magistrate of the first class shall try any offence punishable under this Act.
• Where a complaint has been made under clause (b) of subsection (1), the court may, on demand by such person, direct the Appropriate Authority to make available copies of the relevant records in its possession to such person.

Amendment in 2003

• Amendment of the act mainly covered bringing the technique of pre-conception sex selection within the ambit of the act
• Bringing ultrasound within its ambit
• Empowering the central supervisory board, the constitution of the state-level supervisory board
• Provision for more stringent punishments
• Empowering appropriate authorities with the power of civil court for search, seizure, and sealing the machines and equipments of the violators
• Regulating the sale of the ultrasound machines only to registered bodies

Conclusion:

For proper implementation of the Act one should not lose focus of the object of the act.

• Object of the act is prohibition of sex determination leading to female feticide & not strict compliance of record keeping.

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