In this article, we shall study a change in the state of a substance.

Melting (Solid → Liquid):

The process of change of solid substance into its liquid state is called melting or fusion. The constant temperature at which the solid becomes liquid upon absorption of heat at constant pressure is called the melting point of that solid at that pressure.

Generally melting point increases with the increase in pressure. Ice is the exception to this because its melting point decreases with the increase in the pressure. Melting point at standard pressure is a characteristic property of a substance. The melting point decreases with the addition of the impurity. Hence melting point can be considered as criteria for purity.

Melting points of some important substances are ice (0 °C), iron (1535 °C), aluminium (660 °C), gold (1064 °C), silver (961 °C), aluminium (660 °C), tin (232 °C), zinc (419.5 °C), copper (1084°C), etc.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model: 

When solids are heated the thermal energy of particles increases. Thus the cohesive forces between the particles weaken to such extent that the particles can have relative motion with respect to each other but cannot move out of the bulk.  Thus solid gets converted into liquid (melts).

Applications of Melting:

• Melting is very important in the production of alloys. If a binary alloy is to be produced. The element with a higher melting point is melted in a crucible and an element with a lower melting point is added to the molten metal. The second element also melts forming almost a homogeneous solution called alloy. Alloys have many applications in everyday life. Some examples of alloys are

• Substances with a high melting point are used to make high-temperature devices. For example, tungsten is used in an incandescent bulb.
• Metals are melted and they are cast (moulded) to give the solids required shape.

Factors Affecting Melting Point:

Internal factors:

• Inter-Molecular (Particle) Forces: If the attractive forces between the molecules of solid are weaker and then the solid has a low melting point. The attraction between the molecules of covalent compounds is weaker than that in ionic solids and hence covalent compounds have a lower melting point than that of the ionic compounds.
• The shape of molecules: If the shape of the molecule is such that it can have a closed packing of the molecules, then the substance has a higher melting point.
• Size of the molecule: The smaller size of molecules can have a closed packing (less void space) of the molecules, then the substance has a higher melting point.

External Factors: 

• Impurity: The melting point of a substance decreases with the presence of impurities in it, The phenomenon is called melting point depression. The particles of impurity disrupt the repeating pattern of forces that hold the solid together. Hence less energy is required to melt the part of the solid surrounding the impurity. Salt is spread on the frozen street so that the melting point decreases and the ice melt fast.
• Pressure: For the solids, those expand on heating, the melting point increases with increase in the pressure. It is due to the fact that the pressure opposes the increase in the distance between molecules (expansion). e.g. silver, gold, copper, paraffin wax, etc. For the solids, those contract on heating, the melting point decreases with increase in the pressure. It is due to the fact that the pressure supports the decrease in the distance between molecules (contraction). e.g. ice, cast iron, bismuth, brass, etc.

When two ice cubes are pressed together they form a single block of ice. The phenomenon is called regelation. When the two cubes are pressed against each other. the ice at the interface melts due to lowering of melting point. When the pressure is released the melted ice (water) at the interface solidifies again and a single block of ice is obtained.

Sublimation (Solid ⇔ Gas):

Sublimation is the process by which a heated solid directly changes into its gaseous state i.e. vapour state. These vapours on cooling directly give solid. Such substances are called sublimates. Examples are ammonium chloride, ammonia, naphthalene balls, camphor, etc.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model: 

Certain solids are heated the thermal energy of molecules increases so that the interparticle forces become negligible and the particles can move freely.  Thus such solids on heating get converted directly into gases. This phenomenon is known as sublimation. The cohesive forces between the particles in such substances are weak.

Freezing (Liquid → Solid):

The process of change of matter from a liquid state to a solid state is called freezing or solidification. The constant temperature at which a liquid changes into solid by giving out heat energy (or cooling) is called the freezing point of the liquid. The freezing point of a liquid is a characteristic property of the liquid. Hence can be considered as criteria of purity.

Freezing points of some important substances are water (0 °C), benzene (5.5 °C), mercury (- 38.87 °C), etc.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model: 

When liquids are cooled the thermal energy of particles decreases. Thus the cohesive forces between the particles strengthen to such extent that the particles can not have relative motion with each other and they occupy the fixed positions.  Thus liquid gets converted into solid (freezes).

Applications of Freezing:

• It is used for the preparation of ice creams.
• The lowering of the freezing point on the addition of solute to the solution is used to find molecular mass of the solute.

Factors Affecting Freezing Point:

For the same substance, the freezing point of the liquid is equal to the melting point of the solid. Therefore the factors those affect melting point of solid obviously affect the freezing point of the liquid.

Freezing Mixtures: 

a mixture of two or more substances (e.g. ice water and salt, or dry ice and alcohol) which can be used to produce temperatures below the freezing point of water.

A freezing mixture of 3 parts of ice and 1 part of NaCl produces a temperature of – 21 °C. A freezing mixture of 2 parts of ice and 3 parts of K₂CO₃ produces a temperature of  – 46 °C.  A freezing mixture of dry ice and alcohol or ethers can produce a temperature of – 60 °C.

In a freezing mixture, a soluble salt is added. The heat required to dissolve one mole of soluble solute in a solvent is called heat of solvation. This heat required for dissolution of solid is taken from the mixture itself and thus the freezing point decreases in steps.

Freezing mixtures ate used to preserve perishable foodstuff like meat and fishes. They are used for producing sub-zero temperatures in laboratories and industrial units.

Evaporation or Vaporization (Liquid → Gas):

The process of conversion of a substance from the liquid state to its vapour state at any temperature below boiling point is called evaporation or vaporization.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model: 

Some particles from liquid surface possess kinetic energy sufficient to overcome the attractive forces from remaining particles of the liquid and become completely free and escape out as a gas particle in the surroundings. This phenomenon is called evaporation or vaporization.

The rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the surface area and the temperature of the liquid.

During evaporation, the temperature of liquid falls. To maintain temperature balance the liquid particles absorb heat from the surroundings making the surrounding cooler. We have already seen that the molecules with higher kinetic energy leave the surface of the liquid, thus there is an overall decrease in the kinetic energy of liquid. This is one of the reasons for the decrease in the temperature of the liquid.

To increase the rate of evaporation we should increase the surface area, the temperature and the wind speed and should decrease the humidity.

Characteristics of Evaporation:

• It is a surface phenomenon as it takes place on the surface of the liquid.
• It takes place at all temperatures.
• It is a slow process
• The temperature of liquid falls.

Applications of Evaporation:

• During hot day sweat is formed on the body which evaporates. The necessary heat required for the evaporation of the sweat is taken from the body and thus the body temperature is maintained.
• Common salts are produced in shallow lagoons. The water from creek or sea is collected. Water evaporates leaving common salt behind.
• Water gets cooled in an earthen pot (matka). Water seeps through the porous earthen pot and gets on the surface of the pot. It evaporates and the necessary heat required for the evaporation of the water is taken from the water inside the pot and thus the temperature of the water inside the pot decreases.
• Drying of clothes is due to evaporation of water. We have to spread the clothes (increase in surface area), under the sun (increasing temperature) at a windy place.
• In refrigerator the cooling gas (freon) gets evaporator in tubes surrounding freezer region, The necessary heat required for the evaporation of the water is taken from the freezer region and thus the temperature of the freezer region decreases.

Boiling (Liquid → Gas):

Boiling process of change of a liquid into a vapour at a particular temperature and pressure from all part of the liquid. Boiling is a bulk process and takes place throughout the liquid.

When we supply heat energy to liquid the particles start moving faster. At a certain temperature, a point is reached when the particles have enough energy to break free from the forces of attraction of each other. At this temperature, the liquid starts changing into a gas (vapours). The temperature at which a liquid starts boiling at the atmospheric pressure is known as its boiling point. Pure liquids have fixed boiling points. It can be considered as the criteria of purity.

The constant temperature at which a liquid changes to vapour under normal atmospheric pressure is called the boiling point of the liquid. Boiling points of some important liquids are water (100 °C), Ethyl alcohol (78.3 °C), benzene (80.2 °C), chloroform (62 °C), sulphuric acid (280 °C), diethyl ether (35 °C), etc.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model: 

During boiling, not only the particles on the surface of the liquid but those near walls of the container also start leaving the liquid. It can be seen that small vapour bubbles are formed inside the liquid on walls of the container. As temperature increases the pressure of vapours in bubble increases. The bubbles start growing in size. A point is reached when the vapour pressure inside the bubble is equal to that of atmospheric pressure. At that instant, the bubble detaches from the walls of the container and rise upward. Reaching the surface it bursts giving vapours to the surroundings. Thus there is continuous agitation of the mass of liquid and we say liquid is boiling.

As the pressure increases the boiling point increases. Soluble impurities increase boiling point.

Characteristics of Boiling:

• It is a bulk phenomenon as it takes place throughout the liquid.
• It takes place at fixed temperatures.
• It is a fast process
• The temperature of liquid remains constant.

Factors Affecting Boiling Point:

• Pressure: As the external (atmospheric) pressure decreases boiling point decreases. Hence at higher altitude water boils below 100 °C. Hence higher altitude, food is not cooked properly. To avoid this problem pressure cooker is used for cooking food.

Working of Pressure Cooker:

The basic principle of a pressure cooker is that the boiling point of water increases with the increase in pressure. A pressure cooker is a steel or aluminum vessel with a lid which is airtight. There is a safety valve to release steam to decrease the excess pressure above certain designated pressure. The steam is formed from water in the pressure cooker which has no escape route gets collected in the vessel which put extra pressure on water, which leads to increase in the boiling point of water above 100 °C. Thus gradually the boiling point of water goes on increasing. When the required pressure is reached, the safety valve lifts due to steam pressure and excess of steam is blown out. The safety wall closes and the process restarts. The pressure of steam is even throughout the vessel and hence the food is cooked fast and evenly. The pressure cooker saves a lot of fuel required for cooking.

• Impurity: When a solid is dissolved in liquid the boiling point increases beyond the normal boiling point. Hence during steaming of food, some salt is added to water, so that the food cooks well.

Liquefaction or Condensation:

Liquefaction is the process in which the gaseous substance changes into a liquid state at a particular temperature.

Explanation on the Basis of Kinetic Model:

On cooling the particles of gas lose their kinetic energy and their speed decreases. The decrease in their speed reduces interparticle space and the particles come so close so that the attractive forces between them increase and the gas gets converted into a liquid.

Science > Chemistry > States of Matter > Change of State of a Substance

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A matter is defined as anything that has mass, which occupies space and may be perceived by senses. There are three states of matter, viz. (a) solid, (b) liquid, and (c) gaseous states.

Historical Perspective of States of Matter:

Ancient Indian philosophers suggested that all the forms of matter are made up of five basic elements (they called it tatva) they called these five basic elements as ‘panch maha bhoota’. These elements are the sky (Akash), air (vayu), fire (teja), water (aap) and earth (soil). Ancient Greek philosophers considered that all for of matter are made of fire, water, air and the earth. Thales (640-546 BC) suggested that all things arose from the water.

The properties which decide the state of matter are the interparticle space, the force of attraction between particles, and the kinetic energy of particles due to their motion. Thus different states of matter can be explained on the basis of particle and kinetic model.

Solid State:

It has a definite shape and definite volume at a given temperature and pressure. A substance is said to be in the solid state if its melting point is above the room temperature at the atmospheric pressure e.g. Chair, chalk, desk, salt, silver, etc.

Characteristics of Solid State:

• Solids have a definite shape and volume.
• There are strong cohesive forces between the molecules of solid.
• The molecules of solid are fixed at one point.
• The melting point of the solid is above room temperature at atmospheric pressure.
• Solids have high densities.

Particle Model:

According to the particle model, in the solid state, the constituent particles are very close to each other. Hence voids between them are very small. There are strong cohesive forces between the particles of solid.

Due to small voids and strong cohesive forces, the particles are not free to change their position and thus can’t have relative motion w.r.t. each other. Thus the particles of solid are fixed at one point. Hence solids have a definite shape and definite volume at given temperature and pressure.

Kinetic Model:

Due to small interparticle space and strong cohesive forces, the particles are fixed in one position. They can only vibrate about their mean position. Hence solids have low thermal energy and thus particles cannot break away from each other by overcoming inter-particles attractive forces. Thus they have a definite spatial arrangement. Hence solids have a definite shape and definite volume at a given temperature and pressure.  When the average distance between the particles increases beyond 10-9 m, the solid melts into a liquid.

Liquid State:

It has a definite volume but has indefinite shape. It will take the shape of the container containing it. A substance is said to be in the liquid state if its boiling point is above the room temperature and melting point is above the room temperature at the atmospheric pressure e.g. water, alcohol, milk etc.

Characteristics of Liquid State:

• Liquids do not have a definite shape but have a definite volume
• In liquids, the cohesive forces are weaker compared to solid and stronger compared to gases.
• Molecules of liquid move freely anywhere but can’t leave the bulk.
• The boiling point of a liquid is above and its freezing point (melting point) is below the room temperature at the atmospheric pressure.
• Liquids have comparatively low densities compared to solids but have higher densities than gases.

Particle Model:

According to the particle model, in the liquid state, the distance between constituent particles is more compared to that between solid particles and less than that between gaseous particles. Thus voids are more compared to that in solids but less compared to that in gases. The cohesive forces between the particles of a liquid are weaker than that between solid particles and stronger than that between gaseous particles.

Hence the cohesive forces are weak enough so that the particles of liquid can have relative motion w.r.t. each other but these cohesive forces are strong enough to stop the particles of a liquid to go out of the bulk. Hence liquids have a definite volume but have indefinite shape.

Kinetic Model:

The interparticle distance between the particles is more than that in the solid state. Hence the attractive forces are weaker than that in the solid state. There is larger void space among the particles. Hence the particles can vibrate with a higher amplitude. At the same time, the particles can move in the bulk. Hence they have translational motion.

Thus particles in the solid state have more thermal energy than that in the solid state. Thus liquids can flow and have a definite volume. Due to their fluidity, they acquire the shape of the container in which they are kept.

Gaseous State:

Gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. It takes the shape and volume of the container. Thus it occupies the whole available volume. A substance is said to be in the gaseous state if its boiling point is below room temperature at atmospheric pressure. e.g. air, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide.

Characteristics of Gaseous State:

• Gases have neither definite shape nor a definite volume.
• In gases, the intermolecular forces of attraction are very weak i.e. almost zero.
• Molecules of gases move freely anywhere.
• The condensation point (boiling point) of gas is below the room temperature at atmospheric pressure.
• Gases have very low densities.

Particle Model:

According to the particle model, iIn the gaseous state, the distance between constituent particles is very large compared to that between solid particles of the liquid. Voids are very large. The cohesive forces between the particles of a gas are negligible. Hence the particles of a gas can move away freely from the bulk and occupy any space available. Hence, gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.

Kinetic Model:

In the gaseous state, the distance between constituent particles is very large compared to that between solid particles of the liquid. The cohesive forces between the particles of a gas are negligible. Hence the particles are free to move and free to vibrate. Hence they have the highest kinetic energy (hence thermal energy) in this state compared to the solid and liquid state.

On cooling the gas the kinetic energy of the gas particles decreases and the molecules come near to each other resulting in an increase in the cohesive forces and thus the gas condenses to form a liquid.

Notes:

• By changing the temperature or pressure or both, the state of the substance can be changed.
• Besides these three standard states of matter, there are two more states called plasma state (Exists at very high temperature) and Bose-Einstein condensate (Exists at the very very cold condition).

Comparative Study of States of Matter:

Plasma State:

This state exists at superheated gaseous state consisting of a mixture of electrons and positively charged ions with unusual properties. These particles are super energetic and are at super excited state. It is found at extremely high temperatures such as interiors of suns and stars or intense electric fields as a discharge tube. Astronomers reveal that 99% of all matter in the universe exists in the plasma state.

Bose-Einstein Condensate (1924):

This state was predicted by Einstein and proved by Satyendra Nath Bose in 1920.  It is super cooled solid in which atoms lose their separate identity. They get condensed and behave like a single super atom. This state is very useful for the modern concept of superconductivity.

Bulk Properties of Matter:

The bulk properties of matter depict the collective behaviour of a large number of particles taken together. These properties are not exhibited by the particle individually.

Volume, pressure, temperature, melting point, boiling point, vapour pressure, density, surface tension, viscosity etc. are the bulk properties of matter.

Bulk properties of matter are dependent on the state of the matter and they change with the change in the state of the matter. Similarly, these bulk properties depend on the energy of constituent particles and electrostatic attraction between them. The change in the physical state and the bulk properties of matter depend on the energy of constituent molecules and intermolecular attraction between them.

It is to be noted that the chemical properties of a substance do not change with the change in the state of the substance

Science > Chemistry > States of Matter > Introducion

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