In the last article, we have studied the significance of chemistry and its branches. In this article, we shall study the chemical classification of substances.

Matter and its Different States:

The matter is any substances that have mass and that occupies space. There are three states of matter.

• Solid: It has a definite shape and volume at given temperature and pressure.
• Liquid: It will take the shape of the container, thus has indefinite shape but has a definite volume.
• Gas: Gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.

Note: Besides these three standard states, there are two more states called plasma state (Exists at very high temperature) and Bose-Einstein condensate (Exists at very cold condition).

Depending upon the chemical composition matter is classified into two types a) Pure substances and b) Mixtures.

Pure substances are further classified into elements (e.g. iron, oxygen) and compounds (e.g. sodium hydroxide, ammonia).This classification was given by a French chemist Lavoisier. While the mixtures are further classified into homogeneous mixtures (e.g. a common salt solution in water)and heterogeneous mixtures (e.g. muddy water).

Pure Substances:

A pure substance is the one which is made up of molecules containing the same kind of atoms. Let us consider the case of pure water. In pure water, all molecules are made up of two hydrogens and one oxygen. Pure substances are further classified into elements and compounds.

All pure substances are homogeneous. But all homogeneous substances are not pure. For e.g. If we consider water its composition is same everywhere, thus it is homogeneous. If we take lime water its composition may be the same everywhere but it is not a pure substance. It is a mixture of water and lime juice.

Characteristics of the Pure Substances:

• They have fixed composition.
• They cannot be separated into simpler substances.
• They can only be changed in identity and properties.
• Their properties do not vary.

Elements:

An element may be defined as a pure substance which can neither be decomposed into nor built from simpler substances by any physical or chemical method. Now atom is considered a fundamental unit of matter. Hence an element may be defined as a pure substance which is made up of one kind of atom.

This definition fails to explain modern techniques and processes like nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and artificial transmutations in nuclear chemistry.

There are presently 118 different elements known. Every element has been given a definite name and a definite symbol. A symbol is a small abbreviation to represent a full and lengthy name of the element. For example: element Nitrogen is represented by the symbol N, element Calcium is represented by the symbol Ca, etc.

Out of 118 elements known, 89 have been isolated from natural sources and the remaining have been prepared by artificial means in laboratories. These elements are called man-made elements. Only ten of naturally occurring elements make up 99% mass of the earth’s crust, oceans, and atmospheres.

Characteristics of Elements:

• They cannot be divided into simpler substances.
• They cannot be built from simpler substances.
• They can only be changed in identity and properties.
• Their properties do not vary.

Classification of Elements:

Based on nature, elements are classified into three types: a) Metals, b) Non-metals, and c) Metalloids.

Metals::

These are generally solids (exceptions mercury and gallium). Examples: Copper, iron, aluminium, zinc, etc.

They have characteristics such as high density, high melting and boiling points, hardness, malleability, high tensile strength, lustre, and the ability to conduct heat and electricity. They react with mineral acids and liberate hydrogen. They form basic oxides. They form non-volatile hydrides if combine with hydrogen.

Note that lithium, sodium, potassium possess low density.

Non-metals:

These are generally non-lustrous. Examples: Sulphur, phosphorous, nitrogen, hydrogen. Six of the non-metals viz: carbon, boron, phosphorous, sulphur, selenium, and iodine are solids. Bromine is the only liquid non-metal at room temperature and pressure. The remaining non-metals: nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, krypton, xenon, and radon are gases.

Generally, they are brittle, non-lustrous, have low melting and boiling points, non-conductors of heat and electricity. They form acidic or neutral oxides. They do not react with mineral acids to liberate hydrogen. They are capable of forming volatile hydrides.

Note that hydrogen and graphite are good conductors of electricity.

Metalloids: 

These elements have characteristics common to metals as well as non-metals. Examples: Arsenic, tin, bismuth, antimony, silicon, tellurium.

Notes:

• Metals rarely combine with one other.
• Non-metals combine with one another to form compounds.
• Metals and Non-metals commonly combine with each other to form compounds.

Atomicity of an Element:

The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity. Based on their atomicity they are classified as

• Monoatomic elements: e.g. Silver (Ag), Gold (Au), Aluminium (Al), Helium (He), Neon(Ne), Boron (B), Carbon (C).
• Diatomic elements: Hydrogen (H₂), Chlorine (Cl₂), Oxygen (O₂).
• Polyatomic elements: Ozone (O₃), Phosphorous (P₄), Sulphur (S₈).

Differences Between Metals and Non-Metals:

Compounds:

A compound may be defined as a pure substance which can be decomposed into simpler substances by some suitable chemical method. A compound is formed by the combination of two or more elements in a definite proportion of a mass.

Examples:  Water (H₂O) is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 1:8 by mass respectively. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a compound of carbon and oxygen in the ratio 3:8 by mass respectively.

Characteristics of Compounds:

• The constituents of a compound are always present in a fixed ratio by mass.
• A compound is always homogeneous in nature.
• The properties of the compound are different from those of its constituent elements.
• The constituents of a compound cannot be separated by simple mechanical means. Energy in the form of light, heat or electricity is required to separate them.
• Compounds are formed as a result of a chemical change.
• The formation of a compound is always accompanied by absorption or evolution of heat, light, or electrical energy.
• Compounds in their purest form have sharp boiling and melting point.

Types of Compounds:

Organic Compounds: The compounds obtained from living sources (organisms) are called organic compounds. Nowadays the term organic compounds refer to compounds of carbon and hydrogen (Hydrocarbons) and their derivatives.

Inorganic Compounds: The compounds obtained from non-living sources such as rocks and minerals are called inorganic compounds. Compounds of all elements except hydrocarbons and their derivatives are included in this type of compound.

It is to be noted that the number of organic compounds is very large compared to inorganic compounds.

Mixtures:

Mixtures can be defined as substances which are made up of two or more pure substances. They can possess variable composition and can be separated into constituent components by some suitable physical means.

Example: Crude oil, air

Classification of Mixtures:

Mixtures are classified into two types

Homogeneous Mixtures: Homogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which have the same composition throughout. These mixtures are also known as solutions. The constituents of homogeneous mixtures are distributed uniformly throughout. The constituents of such mixtures cannot be seen even under the microscope.  Examples: Air, gasoline, sea water, stainless steel, brass, coloured glass etc.

Heterogeneous Mixtures: Heterogeneous mixtures are the mixtures which have different composition at different parts.  The constituents of heterogeneous mixtures are not distributed uniformly throughout. The constituents of such mixtures can be seen even by naked eyes or with the help of a microscope.  Examples: Mixture of iron filings and sulphur, muddy water, a mixture of sand and sugar etc.

Difference Between Homogeneous Mixtures and Heterogeneous Mixtures:

Characteristics of Mixtures:

• The constituents of the mixture may be present in any ratio.
• Mixtures may or may not be homogeneous in nature.
• The properties of constituents remain the same even in mixture form.
• The constituents of a mixture can be separated by simple mechanical or physical means.
• Mixtures are formed as a result of a physical change.6. The formation of a mixture is not accompanied by absorption or evolution of heat, light, or electrical energy.
• Mixtures don’t have sharp boiling and melting point.

In the next article, we shall study different methods of separation of constituents of a mixture.

Previous Topic: Significance of Chemistry

Next Topic: Methods of Separation of Mixtures

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When a human blood sample is prevented from clotting and spun in a test tube (centrifuged), in a machine called a centrifuge, the blood separates into a   straw coloured liquid called plasma and a dark brown mass of blood cells. The lower layer consists of white blood cells, blood platelets, and red blood cells. Collectively, these are the formed elements, which make up about 45% of the total volume of whole blood; the percentage of blood attributed to red blood cells is called the hematocrit. The hematocrit is defined as the percentage of blood volume that is occupied by erythrocytes. The normal hematocrit is approximately 45 percent in men and 42 percent in women.

The upper layer is plasma, which contains a variety of inorganic and organic molecules dissolved or suspended in water. Plasma accounts for about 55% of the total volume of whole blood.

Composition of Plasma:

Plasma is the straw-coloured non-living, liquid part of blood. It makes up about 55 – 60% of blood volume and 5.5 % of body weight. Blood corpuscles and platelets are suspended in it. Blood without clotting factor is called serum. The characteristic straw color of plasma is due largely to a waste product of hemoglobin breakdown called bilirubin.

It is the liquid portion of blood, and about 92% of plasma is water. The remaining 8% of plasma is composed of various salts (ions) and organic molecules. The salts, which are dissolved in plasma, help maintain the pH of the blood. Small organic molecules such as glucose, amino acids, and urea are also dissolved in plasma. The large organic molecules in plasma include hormones and the plasma proteins.

Water:

Plasma is composed of about 90 to 92% water. Acts as a solvent and suspending medium for blood components.  

Plasma Proteins:

Plasma proteins or serum proteins constitute 6 to 8% of plasma. Important plasma-proteins are. The plasma proteins constitute, by weight, most of the plasma solutes. They can be classified, according to certain physical and chemical reactions, into three broad groups: the albumins and globulins, and fibrinogen, which function in blood clotting. Most plasma proteins are made in the liver. An exception is the antibodies produced by B lymphocytes, which function in immunity. Certain hormones are plasma proteins made by various glands.  It must be emphasized that the plasma proteins normally are not taken up by cells; cells use plasma amino acids, not plasma proteins, to make their own proteins. Plasma proteins must be viewed quite differently from most of the other organic constituents of plasma, which use the plasma as a medium for transport to and from cells. In contrast, most plasma proteins perform their functions in the plasma itself or in the interstitial fluid.

• Fibrinogen and prothrombin: It constitutes 4% of the plasma proteins and required for blood clotting.
• Serum albumin: The albumins are the most abundant of the three plasma protein groups and are synthesized by the liver. It makes up 58% of the plasma proteins. They are partly responsible for blood viscosity, the regulation of water movement between tissues and blood and osmotic pressure; acts as a buffer; transports fatty acids,
  free bilirubin, and thyroid hormones.
• Globulins or Gamma globulins or Immunoglobins (Ig): It accounts for 38% of the plasma proteins. They act as antibodies and are associated with the defence mechanism of the body. They Transport lipids, carbohydrates, hormones, and ions like iron and copper; antibodies complement are involved in immunity

Inorganic Salts and Ions (Minerals):

They form 1-2 % of the plasma and includes electrolytes like Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, iron, phosphate, hydrogen, hydroxide, bicarbonate. They are involved in osmosis, membrane potentials, and acid-base balance.

Dissolved Nutrients:

Glucose, lipids, vitamins, fatty acids, amino acids, and cholesterol. They act as sources of energy and basic “building blocks” of more complex molecules. Vitamins Promote enzyme activity.

Hormones and Enzymes:

Blood acts as the transport system for the transportation of regulatory substances called hormones secreted by different glands.  Thus plasma contains hormones and enzymes. Enzymes catalyze chemical reactions; hormones stimulate or inhibit many body functions.

Dissolved Gases:

Oxygen, It is necessary for aerobic respiration; terminal electron acceptor in an electron-transport chain, Carbon dioxide, a Waste product of aerobic respiration; as bicarbonate, helps buffer blood and nitrogen.

Excretory Substances:

Ammonia, urea, uric acid, creatine, and creatinine. Urea, uric acid, creatinine , and ammonia salts  are the breakdown products of protein metabolism; excreted by the kidneys. Bilirubin is the breakdown product of red blood cells; excreted as part of the bile from the liver into the intestine. Lactic acid is the end product of anaerobic respiration; converted to glucose by the liver.

Functions of Plasma:

Transport Nutrients:

Delivering nutrients to the body is a critical function of the circulatory system. Plasma of the blood is the carrier of all nutrients. After food is digested and assimilated, its component nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, minerals, fats, and vitamins are absorbed into the bloodstream. Each of these nutrients is vital for healthy body function.

Transport of Waste Products:

The plasma collects metabolic waste products like urea, creatinine, and other chemical wastes and toxins and transports them to the liver, kidneys, skin, and lungs (excretory organs) for elimination from the body.

Transport of Hormones:

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that affect distant organs. Hormones are released into the bloodstream through which they travel to target sites. The plasma collects the hormones from the endocrine glands and serves as the transportation connection between the glands and the organs or tissues.

Transport of Other Products:

Albumin transports the molecule bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin. Lipoproteins, whose protein portion is a globulin, transport cholesterol.

Body Temperature Regulation:

Plasma Picks up excess body heat from the deep-seated heat-producing organs and brings it to the skin to be excreted. If body temperature drops, surface blood vessels constrict(decrease in size) to conserve body heat. Thus it  helps in regulating the body temperature

Disease Protection and Healing:

There are three types of globulins, designated alpha, beta, and gamma globulins. The alpha and beta globulins, produced by the liver, bind to metal ions, to fat-soluble vitamins, and to lipids, forming the lipoproteins. Antibodies, which help fight infections by combining with antigens, are gamma globulins. The immunoglobins of plasma act as antibodies and attack the foreign intruder in the body. They neutralize these harmful foreign agents. Thus plasma is responsible for the immunity of the body.

Fibrinogen present in the plasma is responsible for clotting of blood which is important for stopping the blood flow from the wounds.

Maintain Haemostasis and Osmoregulation:

Plasma supplies water to different tissues at the same time and removes excess of water produced during metabolic activities. Thus it maintains water balance in the body. Osmotic pressure is a force caused by a difference in solute concentration on either side of a membrane. The plasma proteins, particularly the albumins, contribute to the osmotic pressure, which pulls water into the blood and helps keep it there.

Acid-Base Buffer:

Plasma proteins act as acid-base buffers and maintain blood pH within a range. Plasmaproteins are able to take up and release hydrogen ions; therefore, the plasma proteins help buffer the blood and keep its pH around 7.40.

Disorders Related with Blood Plasma:

Oedema or Edema:

Oedema is swelling that occurs when too much fluid becomes trapped in the tissues of the body, particularly the skin. It most often occurs in the skin, especially on the hands, arms, ankles, legs, and feet. However, it can also affect the muscles, bowels, lungs, eyes, and brain. It usually starts slowly, but the onset can be sudden.

In case of a person suffering from protein deficiency, a fall in plasma protein leads to escape of excess volume of water from the blood to tissues. Due to excess of fluid of fluid in tissues causes swelling of feet. The state is called oedema.  The condition mainly occurs in older adults and women who are pregnant. Symptoms include skin that retains a dimple after being pressed for a few seconds,  puffiness of the ankles, face, or eyes, higher pulse rate and high blood pressure.

Diuretics are a type of medication. They help get rid of excess fluid by increasing the rate of urine production by the kidneys.

Cholesterol:

Cholesterol is present in plasma. Cholesterol has a tendency to deposit on the walls of blood vessels leading to a condition called atherosclerosis. The liver is responsible for producing and clearing cholesterol in the body.

Dietary cholesterol increases plasma total cholesterol concentrations in humans. There is a relationship between increased plasma cholesterol concentrations and cardiovascular disease risk. Dietary guidelines have consistently recommended to such person limiting food sources of cholesterol. Potential sources of dietary cholesterol are limited to animal foods; eggs, dairy products, and meat.

LDL (low-density lipoprotein) cholesterol is also called “bad” cholesterol. LDL can build up on the walls of arteries and increase the chances of getting heart disease. HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol is also called “good” cholesterol. HDL protects against heart disease by taking the bad cholesterol out of the blood and keeping it from building up in arteries. Along with cholesterol, triglycerides form plasma lipids. Excess triglycerides in plasma have been linked to the occurrence of coronary artery disease in some people.

Everyone over the age of 20 should get their cholesterol levels checked at least once every 5 years by a test called “Lipid profile”. Everyone over the age of 40 should get their cholesterol levels checked at least once a year.

Lifestyle changes such as exercising and eating a healthy diet are the first line of defence against high cholesterol. The choice of medication for high cholesterol depends on individual risk factors, age,  current health and possible side effects. Common choices include Statins, Bile-acid-binding resins, Cholesterol absorption inhibitors, Injectable medications. The choice of medication for high triglycerides is Fibrates, Niacin, Omega-3 fatty acid supplements.

Previous Topic: The Blood, an Overview

Next Topic: Composition of Blood: Red Blood Corpuscles

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