In the last article, we have studied medicines in everyday life, like analgesics, antipyretics, antihistamines, tranquilizers, antifertility, and antimalarials. In this article, we shall study, antimicrobials, antibiotics, antiseptics, and disinfectants.

The action of Microbes in the Body:

The living organisms which cannot be seen with the naked eyes (unaided eyes) and can only be observed through a microscope are called microorganisms or microbes. They include bacteria, fungi, algae, and viruses. They are present almost everywhere air, water, soil, inside and on our body. The disease-producing microbes are called pathogens.

Our body has an efficient defense structure against these pathogens. Skin prevents microbes to enter our body. Some secretions like lysosomes in tears, nasal secretions, saliva, fatty acids, lactic acid in sweat, hydrochloric acid in stomach kill these microbes or inhibit their growth. The breach of this defense system allows the pathogens to reach tissues and cause infection in the body. Due to which normal metabolic activities are disturbed.  This results in a disease. Pathogens produce toxins which may affect tissues and organs of the host.

Antimicrobials:

Antimicrobials are drugs which tend to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the pathogenic action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (antifungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites (antiparasitic drugs) selectively. Antibiotics, antiseptics, and disinfectants are antimicrobial drugs.

The antimicrobials that kill bacteria are called bactericidal. Those inhibit the growth of bacteria are called bacteriostatic. Some antimicrobial increase immunity of the body. Germbacteriologistist Paul Ehrlich developed the first antimicrobial called arsphenamine (Salvarsan) for treatment of syphilis.

Sulpha drugs like sulphadiazine, sulphathiazole, sulphanilamide, sulphacetamide, sulphafurazole have great antibacterial power.

Antibiotics:

Antibiotics are used as drugs to treat infections because of their low toxicity for humans and animals. Initially, antibiotics were classified as chemical substances produced by microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, and molds) that inhibit the growth or even destroy microorganisms. The development of synthetic methods has helped in synthesizing some of the compounds that were originally discovered as products of microorganisms. Also, some purely synthetic compounds have antibacterial activity, and therefore, the definition of antibiotic has been modified. An antibiotic now refers to a substance produced wholly or partly by chemical synthesis, which at low concentrations inhibits the growth or destroys microorganisms by intervening in their metabolic processes.

The complete range of microorganisms which are attacked by an antibiotic is called a spectrum. The antibiotics effective against several different types of harmful microorganisms are called broad-spectrum antibiotics. e,g, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol, etc.

In 1929 Alexander Fleming found antibacterial properties of a Penicillium fungus.

By substitution of different R groups, about 6 natural penicillins have been isolated so far. following five are from these 6 types.

Ampicillin and amoxicillin are semi-synthetic modifications of penicillin.

It is absolutely essential to test the patients for sensitivity (allergy) to penicillin or its modifications ampicillin and amoxicillin before it is administered.

In India, penicillin is manufactured at the Hindustan Antibiotics in Pimpri, at Indian Drugs and Pharmaceuticals Limited at IDPL Rishikesh and in private sector industry.

Types of Antibiotics:

Depending Upon Effect:

Antibiotics have either cidal (killing) effect or a static (inhibitory) effect on microbes. Depending upon these effects antibiotics are classified into two types bactericidal and bacteriostatic respectively.

• Examples of bactericidal antibiotics: Penicillin, Ofloxacin, Aminoglycosides, etc.
• Examples of bacteriostatic antibiotics: Erythromycin, Tetracycline,  Chloramphenicol, etc.

Depending Upon Spectrum:

The range of bacteria or other microorganisms that are affected by a certain antibiotic is expressed as its spectrum of action. The complete range of micro-organisms attacked by an antibiotic is called spectrum.

• Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are said to be broad-spectrum antibiotics. Ampicillin and Amoxycillin are synthetic modifications of penicillin are broad spectrum Antibiotics. Other examples are tetracycline, chloramphenicol, vancomycin, ofloxacin.
• Antibiotics effective mainly against Gram-positive or Gram-negative bacteria are narrow spectrum antibiotics. e.g. Penicillin G5. Antibiotics effective against a single organism or disease, they are referred to as limited spectrum antibiotics.

Some Important Antibiotics:

Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract and hence can be given orally in case of typhoid, dysentery, acute fever, whooping cough, a certain form of urinary infections, meningitis, and pneumonia.

• Vancomycin and ofloxacin are the other important broad-spectrum antibiotics.
• The antibiotic dysidazirine is supposed to be toxic towards certain strains of cancer cells.
• Streptomycin is used for the treatment of tuberculosis. In low concentration it is bacteriostatic and in high concentration it is bactericidal.
• p-Aminosalicylic acid (PAS) and isonicotinhydrazine or isoniazid (INH) are also used for the treatment of tuberculosis.

Sulpha Drugs:

Sulpha drugs are derivatives of sulphanilamide. They were first introduced as medicine by Gerhard Domagk in 1930.

Sulphapyridine – Cure for pneumonia

Sulphadiazine – Cure for pneumonia, throat infection, meningitis,

Sulphaguanidine – Cure of bacillary dysentery

Sulphathiazole – Useful against staphylococcal infections and bubonic plague.

Succinyl sulphathiazole – Useful in intestinal infections such as bacillary dysentery and cholera)

Sulphaacetamide – Used to cure urinary tract infections.

Antiseptics:

Drugs which are applied to the living tissues to kill the bacteria and to stop their growth in
wound thus preventing its infection are called antiseptics.

Examples: Iodoform, boric acid, dilute solution of phenol, hydrogen peroxide. Dettol, tincture iodine, soframycin, furacine.

Antiseptics prevent the wound from infection. It is to be noted that antiseptics do not heal wounds. 2 to 3 % solution of iodine in alcohol and water is called tincture iodine. It is a powerful antiseptic and is applied to wounds.

Dettol is antiseptic and a mixture of terpineol and chloroxylenol.

Bithional (the compound is also called bithionol) is added to soaps to impart antiseptic properties.

Boric acid in dilute aqueous solution is weak antiseptic for eyes. Antiseptics are mixed with deodorants, face powders, and breath purifiers. Amyl meta-cresol is used as antiseptics in mouthwash or for gargling.

Uses of Antiseptics:

• They are used to dress the wounds.
• They are used to destroy fungal growth.
• They are used to sterilize surgical instruments.
• They are used in anti-infective in deodorants, shampoos and surgical soaps.

Disinfectants:

Drugs which are applied to the nonliving objects to kill the bacteria and to stop their growth are called disinfectants. They are not safe to be applied to living tissues.

Examples: Concentrated solution of phenol, sulphur dioxide, chlorine, Chlorine in the concentration of 0.2 to 0.4 ppm in aqueous solution. Sulphur dioxide in very low concentrations are disinfectants.

Uses of Disinfectants:

• They kill microorganisms on nonliving objects and used on public health floor and
  to sterilize the surgical instruments.

Difference Between Antiseptics and Disinfectants:

Antiseptics:

• Drugs which are applied to the living tissues to kill the bacteria and to stop their growth in wound thus preventing its infection are called antiseptics.
• Antiseptics are applied to the living tissues such as wounds, cuts, ulcers and diseased skin surfaces.

Disinfectants:

• Drugs which are applied to the nonliving objects to kill the bacteria and to stop their growth are called disinfectants.
• Disinfectants are applied to inanimate objects such as floors, drainage system, instruments.

Important Discoveries in the Field of Medicine:

• Fellix Hoffman (German chemist) – Synthesis of Aspirin
• LeoSternbach (Polish Jewish chemist) – Discovered benzodiazepines (A class of tranquilizers)
• Selman Waksman (Jewish American biochemist) – Discovery of Streptomycin
• Alexander Fleming (Scotish pharmacologist) – Discovery of penicillin
• Paul Ehrich (German scientist) – a compound containing arsenic to treat syphilis, Discovered salvarsan and protonsil.

In the next article, we shall study the chemicals in food.

Previous Topic: Analgesics, Antipyretics, Antihistamines, Tranquilizers, Antifertility drugs, and Antimalarials.

Next Topic: Use of Chemicals in Food

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Microbes are omnipresent i.e. they exist everywhere: in soil, air, water and also in the human body and the bodies of plants and other animals! They also exist in places where no other life-form exists. Bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viroids are examples of microorganisms. The general presumption is that the microbes are harmful to us because some of them cause diseases to both plants and animals including humans. However, there are many microorganisms, who are useful to us in many ways. In this article, we shall study the use of Industrial uses of microbes.

The process of anaerobic respiration in which the complex molecules incompletely brakes into simple ones by the microbial action is called fermentation. There are many types of fermentation that are distinguished by the end products formed from pyruvate or its derivatives. The two fermentations most commonly used by humans to produce commercial foods are ethanol fermentation (used in beer and bread) and lactic acid fermentation (used to flavor and preserve dairy and vegetables).

Production of Alcoholic Beverages:

Beverages like wine, beer, whisky, Brandy, Rum are produced from malted cereals and fruit juices. Wine and beer produced without distillation. While whisky, brandy, rum produced after distillation. Yeasts are the main fermenter and alcohol producer in the production of wine, beer, and other alcoholic drinks. Vinegar is a food product made by acetic acid bacteria that can ferment the alcohol in alcoholic liquids to acetic acid.

Wine Making:

Harvesting is the first step in the winemaking process and an important part of ensuring delicious wine. Grapes are the only fruit those have the necessary acids, esters, and tannins to consistently make natural and stable wine. Then mechanical presses are used to stomp or trod the grapes into what is called must. Must is simply freshly pressed grape juice that contains the skins, seeds, and solids. After crushing and pressing, fermentation is carried out by allowing the must to ferment naturally for 6-12 hours.  When aided with wild yeasts in the air.  Microbes used for making wine is Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. ellipsodeus. ( brewer’s yeast) Different flavours can be obtained by using different flavours. When fermentation is complete, clarification of process begins, in which solids such as dead yeast cells, tannins, and proteins are removed. Then the wine is transferred or “racked” into a different vessel such as an oak barrel or a stainless steel tank. Wine can be distributed immediately for use but aging the wine in oak barrels will produce a smoother, rounder, and more vanilla flavored wine. It also increases wine’s exposure to oxygen while it ages, which decreases tannin and helps the wine reach its optimal fruitiness. 

Beer Making:

Beer is made from the fermentation of grains, particularly barley. Barley grains are cleaned and soaked in water for about 2 days. Then excess water is drained away and the barley is incubated for 4-5 days to allow germination. The process is called malting. Then the germinated seeds are then killed by slow heating at 80°. This process is called kilning. The temperature should be monitored because, if the kilning temperature is higher, the beer produced will be darker. The dried barley grains are then crushed between rollers to produce coarse powder called grist. Grist is mixed with warm water and the resulting materials are maintained at 65°C for about 1 hour. The process is called mashing. Then the filtrate is then boiled with stirring for 2-3 hours. Then the process of fermentation is carried out. Microbes used for making beer is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The fermenting solution is allowed to stand for a few days.  Then it is clarified, carboxylated and bottled.

Whisky Making:

Whisky is obtained from fermenting mixed grains of corn, wheat, barley, etc. The product of fermentation is distilled. Distillation is just further processing of fermented beverage to purify and remove any diluting components like water. This increases the proportion of their alcohol content and that’s why they are also commonly known as ‘Hard Liquor’, to distinguish distilled beverages from undistilled ones.

Production of Organic Acids:

Various of organic acids are obtained by fermentation using microbes. Organic acids are commercially prepared using fungi. Examples of acids that are derived and manufactured on a large scale using fungi are acetic acid, citric acid, gluconic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid.

Some organic acids obtained from the microbial source are as follows. The citric acid (Aspergillus niger), Gluconic acid (Aspergillus niger), Fumaric acid (Rhizopus arrhizus), Acetic acid or vinegar (Acetobacter aceti), Butyric Acid (Clostridium butylicum), Lactic acid. (Lactobacillus).

Production of Vitamins:

Vitamins are complex organic compounds required in very small quantities for normal growth and development of a body. There are two types of vitamins a) water-soluble (vitamins B and C) and b) fat-soluble (vitamins A, D, E, and K). All vitamins are not produced in the body, hence they are obtained through food and supplements, tablets.

Some important vitamins (microbial source) are as follows. Vitamin B₂ (Neurospora gossypii and Eremothecium ashbyi), Vitamin B₁₂ (Pseudomonas denitrificans) and vitamin C (Aspergillus niger).

Production of Antibiotics :

Some secondary metabolites, products of fermentation have therapeutic use. Bacteria and viruses are isolated and their antigens and enzymes are extracted. These antigens help in the development of antibiotics and antivirals. Penicillin produced by Alexander Fleming from Penicillium notatum while working with Staphylococcus aureus. Earnest Chain and Howard Plorey awarded Nobel Prize in 1945 for establishing Penicillin as an effective antibiotic. Penicillin is used to treat diseases like plague, whooping cough, diphtheria, leprosy.

Some important antibiotics(microbial source) are as follows. Chloromycetin (Streptomyces venezuelae), Erythromycin (Streptomyces erythreus), Penicillin (Penicillium chrysogenum), Streptomycin (Streptomyces griseus).

Production of Chemicals :

Lipases used in detergents to remove oil strains from Laundry. Pectinases and Proteases to clarify bottled juices.

Streptokinase (from Streptococcus) act as clot buster in the treatment of myocardial infraction (heart attack). An immuno-suppressant Cyclosporin A (Trichoderma polysporum) is used in organ transplant patients. Statins produced by yeast (Monascus purpureus) used as blood, cholesterol-lowering agent. Some bacterial and fungal species are used in the preparation of steroids that are then injected into the human body for different purposes.

Production of Gibberellin:

Gibberellins are a group of growth hormones produced by higher plants and fungi to promote growth by stem elongation.

The first gibberellin was obtained by Japanese scientists Yabuta and Sumiki in 1938 from rice seedlings infected with the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. About 15 types of gibberellins are obtained from Gibberella fujikuroi. Gibberellins are used to induce parthenocarpy in apple, pear, etc. They are also used for breaking dormancy and inducing flowering.

Production of Enzymes:

Enzymes are biocatalyst which are required for initiation or acceleration of the biological process in a living organism. These enzymes convert complex substances like starch, proteins, and fats into simple absorbable substances. Now enzymes are produced to give desirable flavours to cheese and butter, sweetness to confectionaries, animal feed, soybean milk, etc.

Some important enzymes (microbial source) are as follows. Invertase (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), Pectinase (Scerotiana libertine), Lipase (Rhisopus spp), Cellulase (Trichoderma konigi).

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