Plant morphology is the branch of botany that focuses on the study of the external form and structure of plants, including their organs, tissues, and overall architecture.

List of Sub-Topics in Plant Morphology:

• Introduction
• Scope of Study
• Importance of Study
• Early Studies and Pioneers
• Milestones in the Development
• Applications and Future Development
• Conclusion
• Related Topics

Biology is a branch of science which studies living beings that all plants and animals including humans. It is a word derived from Greek words (Greek: bios = life; logos = study). No one can say when the study of biology exactly began but Greeks can be considered as the pioneer of an organized study of this branch of science. Botany is the scientific study of plants, including their structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, evolution, ecology, and interactions with the environment. It is a branch of biology that encompasses a wide range of topics related to plant life, from the molecular and cellular levels to the ecosystem and global scales. In this article we shall discuss scope of the subject Plant Morphology and importance of its study.

Plant morphology is the branch of botany that focuses on the study of the external form and structure of plants, including their organs, tissues, and overall architecture.

Scope of the Study of Plant Morphology:

Plant morphology is a branch of botany that focuses on the study of the form, structure, and external features of plants. It encompasses a wide range of topics related to the physical appearance and organization of plants at various levels of complexity. Here’s an overview of the scope of the study of plant morphology:

• Plant Structures and Organs: Plant morphology examines the external structures and organs of plants, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. It investigates the form, arrangement, and functions of these organs, as well as their adaptations to environmental conditions and ecological roles.
• Root Morphology: Root morphology explores the structure, anatomy, and development of plant roots and their special modifications. It examines the types of root systems (e.g., taproots, fibrous roots), root hairs, root nodules, and specialized root structures, as well as their roles in anchorage, absorption of water and nutrients, and symbiotic interactions with soil microorganisms.
• Stem Morphology: Stem morphology focuses on the form, structure, and functions of plant stems. It investigates the types of stems (e.g., herbaceous, woody), stem architecture, internode length, branching patterns, and modifications such as tendrils, thorns, and bulbs.
• Leaf Morphology: Leaf morphology examines the external features, anatomy, and adaptations of plant leaves. It studies leaf shapes, sizes, margins, venation patterns, surface textures, and modifications such as spines, hairs, and succulence, as well as their roles in photosynthesis, transpiration, and defence.
• Flower Morphology: Flower morphology focuses on the structure, arrangement, and diversity of plant flowers. It investigates the parts of a flower (e.g., petals, sepals, stamens, pistils), floral symmetry, inflorescence types, pollination mechanisms, and floral adaptations for attracting pollinators and ensuring reproductive success.
• Fruit Morphology: Fruit morphology examines the external features, structure, and development of plant fruits. It studies fruit types (e.g., fleshy, dry), fruit shapes, sizes, textures, dispersal mechanisms, and adaptations for seed dispersal and protection.
• Taxonomic and Evolutionary Relationships: Plant morphology provides valuable information for plant classification, taxonomy, and evolutionary studies. By comparing morphological traits among different plant species, botanists can infer phylogenetic relationships, identify evolutionary trends, and classify plants into hierarchical groups based on shared characteristics.
• Comparative Morphology: Comparative morphology compares the external features and structural characteristics of different plant species, genera, families, and taxa. It explores evolutionary relationships, convergent evolution, and morphological adaptations to diverse habitats, ecological niches, and reproductive strategies.
• Developmental Morphology: Developmental morphology investigates the processes of morphogenesis, organogenesis, and growth in plants. It examines the genetic, hormonal, and environmental factors influencing plant development, including the formation of meristems, primordia, tissues, and organs.
• Applied Morphology: Applied morphology applies knowledge of plant form and structure to practical purposes in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, landscaping, and conservation. It includes the identification of plant species, cultivars, and varieties based on morphological characteristics, as well as the selection, breeding, and cultivation of plants for desired traits and purposes.

Plant morphology provides fundamental insights into the diversity, adaptation, and organization of plant life, essential for understanding plant biology, ecology, evolution, and human interactions with plants.

Importance of Study of Plant Morphology:

The study of plant morphology holds significant importance for several reasons:

• Taxonomy and Classification: Plant morphology provides important characteristics used in the classification and taxonomy of plants. Morphological features such as leaf shape, flower structure, fruit type, and growth habit help botanists classify plants into groups and identify species. Understanding plant morphology is fundamental for organizing plant diversity and understanding evolutionary relationships among plant species.
• Plant Identification: Plant morphology plays a crucial role in plant identification. By observing and analyzing morphological traits such as leaf arrangement, stem structure, flower colour, and fruit type, botanists, ecologists, horticulturists, and enthusiasts can identify and distinguish between different plant species. Accurate plant identification is essential for ecological studies, biodiversity monitoring, conservation efforts, and horticultural practices.
• Ecological Adaptations: Plant morphology reflects adaptations to environmental conditions and ecological niches. Morphological features such as root depth, leaf shape, and growth form are influenced by factors such as light availability, soil moisture, temperature, and competition. Understanding plant morphology helps ecologists interpret ecological patterns, predict species distributions, and assess plant responses to environmental changes, such as climate change and habitat disturbance.
• Plant Breeding and Crop Improvement: Plant morphology is essential for plant breeding and crop improvement programs. Breeders select plants with desirable morphological traits such as high yield, disease resistance, drought tolerance, and nutritional quality for further breeding. Understanding plant morphology enables breeders to develop crop varieties with improved agronomic characteristics and adaptation to specific growing conditions, contributing to agricultural productivity and food security.
• Horticulture and Landscaping: Plant morphology is important in horticulture and landscaping for designing gardens, parks, and green spaces. Horticulturists select plants with attractive foliage, flowers, and growth habits to create aesthetically pleasing landscapes. Understanding plant morphology helps landscapers plan garden layouts, select appropriate plant species, and create visually appealing compositions based on colour, texture, height, and form.
• Conservation and Restoration: Plant morphology informs conservation and restoration efforts aimed at preserving biodiversity and restoring degraded ecosystems. By studying the morphology of native plant species, conservationists identify key species for conservation priorities, assess habitat quality, and develop restoration strategies. Understanding plant morphology helps restore ecosystem functions, enhance habitat connectivity, and promote the recovery of native plant communities in disturbed landscapes.
• Medicinal and Ethno-botanical Studies: Plant morphology is important in medicinal and ethno-botanical studies for identifying medicinal plants and understanding their traditional uses. Morphological features such as bark texture, leaf arrangement, and flower morphology provide clues about plant properties and medicinal potential. Understanding plant morphology helps ethno-botanists document traditional knowledge, identify medicinal plant species, and explore their therapeutic properties for drug discovery and healthcare.

Thus, the study of plant morphology is essential for understanding plant diversity, ecology, evolution, and adaptation to diverse environments. It has practical applications in taxonomy, plant identification, ecological research, conservation, agriculture, horticulture, and traditional medicine, contributing to our understanding of plants’ role in ecosystems and human societies.

Early Studies and Pioneers in Plant Morphology:

The study of plant morphology has a rich history, with many early scholars contributing to our understanding of plant structure and form. Here are some notable pioneers and their contributions:

• Theophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC): Often referred to as the “Father of Botany,” Theophrastus was a student of Aristotle and one of the earliest scholars to systematically study plants. His work “Enquiry into Plants” and “On the Causes of Plants” provided detailed descriptions of plant morphology, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, as well as observations on plant growth and reproduction.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519): The renowned Italian polymath, Leonardo da Vinci, made significant contributions to the study of plant morphology through his detailed drawings and anatomical studies. His botanical sketches and dissections, such as those found in his notebooks “Codex Leicester” and “Codex Atlanticus,” provided insights into the structure and form of plants, including their vascular systems and reproductive organs.
• Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564): Vesalius, a Flemish anatomist, made important contributions to the understanding of plant morphology through his anatomical studies of both humans and plants. His work “De humani corporis fabrica” (On the Fabric of the Human Body) applied principles of human anatomy to the study of plant structure, emphasizing the similarities and differences between animal and plant organization.
• Nehemiah Grew (1641–1712): Grew, an English botanist and physician, is often considered one of the founders of plant anatomy and morphology. His book “The Anatomy of Plants” (1682) provided the first systematic classification of plant tissues and described the external morphology of roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits, laying the groundwork for subsequent studies in plant morphology.
• Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778): Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist and taxonomist, made significant contributions to the classification and description of plant morphology. His system of binomial nomenclature, outlined in works such as “Species Plantarum” (1753), standardized the naming of plants based on their morphological characteristics, facilitating the identification and classification of plant species.
• Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778–1841): De Candolle, a Swiss botanist, made important contributions to plant morphology through his studies on plant classification and organography. His work “Organographie végétale” (1813) provided detailed descriptions of plant organs and their variations across different taxa, contributing to our understanding of plant diversity and evolution.
• Johannes Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832): Although primarily known as a poet and playwright, Goethe also made significant contributions to plant morphology through his botanical studies. His work “Metamorphosis of Plants” (1790) proposed the concept of “archetypal plant forms” and emphasized the unity of plant organization, influencing later theories of plant morphology and evolution.

These early studies and pioneers laid the foundation for the systematic study of plant morphology, paving the way for further advancements in our understanding of plant structure, form, and evolution.

Milestones in the Development of Plant Morphology:

The development of plant morphology as a scientific discipline has been marked by several key milestones, reflecting advancements in observation, classification, and theory. Here are some significant milestones in the history of plant morphology:

• Theophrastus and Early Descriptions: Theophrastus, in his works “Enquiry into Plants” and “On the Causes of Plants” (c. 371 – c. 287 BC), provided some of the earliest systematic descriptions of plant morphology, including roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. These early observations laid the groundwork for future studies in plant form and structure.
• Introduction of the Binomial System of Nomenclature: The publication of Carl Linnaeus’s “Species Plantarum” (1753) marked a milestone in the classification of plants based on their morphology. Linnaeus’s binomial system of nomenclature provided a standardized method for naming and categorizing plant species, facilitating communication and organization in the field of plant morphology.
• Discovery of Cell Structure: The development of microscopy in the 17th century allowed for the visualization of plant cells and tissues. Robert Hooke’s observations of cork cells in his book “Micrographia” (1665) and Marcello Malpighi’s studies on plant anatomy in the 17th century provided insights into the cellular basis of plant morphology.
• The Rise of Comparative Morphology: In the 19th century, comparative morphology emerged as a prominent approach in the study of plant form and structure. Botanists such as Augustin Pyramus de Candolle and Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli conducted comparative studies of plant organs across different taxa, leading to the development of morphological classifications and theories of plant evolution.
• Development of Evolutionary Morphology: Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection, presented in his seminal work “On the Origin of Species” (1859), revolutionized the field of plant morphology. Darwin’s theory provided a framework for understanding the diversity of plant forms as adaptations to their environments and evolutionary history.
• Introduction of Experimental Morphology: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, experimental approaches began to complement observational and comparative studies in plant morphology. Scientists such as Julius von Sachs and Wilhelm Pfeffer conducted experiments to investigate the physiological basis of plant form and growth, laying the foundation for modern experimental morphology.
• Advancements in Genetics and Developmental Biology: The discovery of the genetic basis of plant development and morphogenesis in the 20th century led to significant advancements in plant morphology. Research in genetics, developmental biology, and molecular biology provided insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying plant form and patterning, including the role of genes and signalling pathways in organ development.
• Integration of Morphology with Other Disciplines: In recent decades, advances in imaging technologies, computational modelling, and interdisciplinary collaboration have transformed the study of plant morphology. Integration with fields such as biomechanics, ecology, and phylogenetics has expanded our understanding of how plant form is shaped by interactions between genetics, development, environment, and evolution.

These milestones represent key advancements in the development of plant morphology as a scientific discipline, highlighting the interdisciplinary nature of research in understanding the form and function of plants.

Applications and Future Development and Plant Morphology:

Plant morphology has numerous applications across various fields and continues to undergo advancements that drive future developments. Here are some applications and potential areas of future development in plant morphology:

• Agriculture and Crop Improvement: Understanding plant morphology is essential for breeding programs aimed at developing crop varieties with desirable traits such as high yield, disease resistance, and stress tolerance. Future developments may involve using morphological traits as selection criteria in breeding programs, integrating morphological data with genomic information for marker-assisted selection, and employing high-throughput phenotyping technologies for rapid trait characterization.
• Urban Greening and Landscape Design: Plant morphology contributes to urban greening initiatives and landscape design by guiding the selection and arrangement of plants in urban environments. Future developments may involve designing urban landscapes that maximize ecosystem services, such as carbon sequestration, air purification, and storm water management, through the strategic use of plant morphology and species diversity.
• Conservation and Ecological Restoration: Plant morphology plays a crucial role in ecological restoration efforts aimed at rehabilitating degraded ecosystems and conserving biodiversity. Future developments may involve using morphological traits to assess ecosystem health, guide habitat restoration efforts, and predict species responses to environmental changes and restoration interventions.
• Biotechnology and Synthetic Biology: Plant morphology provides inspiration for biotechnological applications and synthetic biology approaches aimed at engineering novel plant forms and functions. Future developments may involve designing plants with optimized morphologies for specific purposes, such as enhanced biomass production, phytoremediation of contaminated soils, and bioenergy production from plant biomass.
• Pharmaceuticals and Medicinal Plants: Plant morphology contributes to the identification, cultivation, and utilization of medicinal plants for pharmaceutical purposes. Future developments may involve studying the morphological characteristics of medicinal plants to optimize cultivation practices, standardize herbal preparations, and ensure the sustainable use of plant resources for medicinal purposes.
• Climate Change Adaptation: Plant morphology informs strategies for adapting to climate change by understanding how plants respond morphologically to changing environmental conditions. Future developments may involve studying the adaptive potential of plant morphology to climatic variables such as temperature, precipitation, and CO2 levels, and using this information to develop climate-resilient plant species and ecosystems.
• Education and Outreach: Plant morphology education and outreach initiatives play a crucial role in fostering public understanding and appreciation of plants and their diversity. Future developments may involve using innovative educational approaches, such as digital tools, interactive exhibits, and citizen science projects, to engage the public in the study of plant morphology and its relevance to society.
• Integration with Emerging Technologies: Future developments in plant morphology will likely involve integration with emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, robotics, and 3D printing. Advanced imaging techniques, computational modeling, and robotic systems may enable researchers to analyze and manipulate plant morphology at unprecedented scales and resolutions, opening up new avenues for research and applications in plant science.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, delving into the realm of plant morphology is indispensable for unlocking the mysteries of plant form and structure, providing profound insights into the diversity, adaptation, and evolution of plant life. By scrutinizing the external and internal features of plants at various organizational levels, researchers gain a deeper understanding of the intricate relationships between form and function, enabling them to unravel the mechanisms underlying plant growth, development, and ecological interactions. Moreover, the study of plant morphology serves as a cornerstone for diverse fields including taxonomy, ecology, evolution, and applied sciences such as agriculture, horticulture, and conservation biology. Through meticulous observation, classification, and analysis of plant morphological traits, scientists can discern patterns of biodiversity, elucidate evolutionary relationships, and devise strategies for the conservation and sustainable management of plant resources. Furthermore, an appreciation of plant morphology fosters a deeper connection with the natural world, inspiring curiosity, awe, and wonder at the astonishing complexity and beauty of plant life. In essence, the need to study plant morphology transcends disciplinary boundaries, offering a gateway to unlocking the secrets of the botanical world and illuminating pathways towards a deeper understanding of life on Earth.

Related Topics:

What do we study in Botany?

• Plant Anatomy
• Plant Physiology
• Plant Taxonomy and Systematics
• Plant Ecology
• Plant Evolution and Genetics
• Plant Biotechnology
• Plant Pathology
• Applied Botany
• Ethnobotany

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Biologists follow universally accepted principles to provide scientific names to known organisms. Each name has two components – the Generic name (genus) and the specific epithet (species name). Hence the system is called binomial nomenclature.

We can compare the generic (genus) name with our surname. We share our surname with other members of the family. similarly, a species can share a generic name with other members of the genus. The species name is like our name. It is possessed by only one kind of organism. It does not share it with any other member of the genus. This system of providing a name with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. This naming system given by Carolus Linnaeus is being practiced by biologists all over the world.

Rules of Nomenclature:

These rules are given by the International Code of Biological Nomenclature.

• Biological names are generally in Latin and written in italics.
• They are Latinized or derived from Latin irrespective of their origin.
• The first word in a biological name represents the genus which is a simple noun while the second component is a descriptive adjective which denotes the specific epithet (character).
• Both the words in a biological name, when handwritten, are separately underlined or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin.
• The first word denoting the genus starts with a capital letter while the specific epithet starts with a small letter.
• The generic, as well as a specific name, do not generally have less than three letters and more than thirteen letters. It can be illustrated with the example of Mangifera indica (mango).
• Usually, the name of the author appears after the specific epithet, i.e., at the end of the biological name and is written in an abbreviated form or in full. e.g. Mangifera indica L. It indicates that this species was first described by Linnaeus.  This method of mentioning the author’s name is called a citation.
• To avoid confusion, no two generic names in any kingdom can be the same. However, species name can be repeated when genera are different. E.g. Mangifera indica (mango) and Azadirachta indica (neem)

Advantages of Binomial Nomenclature:

• These names are simple and meaningful, precise and standard as they are accepted universally.
• Using this system confusion created by vernacular or local language can be avoided. For e.g. Ipomoea batatas is called sweet potato (English), Shakarkand  (Hindi), Ratalu (Marathi), Meetha alu (Bengali), Kandmul (Telugu) and Janasu (Kannada)3. It is easy to understand and remember.
• It indicates a phylogenic (evolutionary) history of that species.
• It helps to understand the relationship between organisms and groups of organisms.

Names of Some Plants Using Binomial Nomenclature:

Names of Some Animals Using Binomial Nomenclature:

Science > Biology > General Biology > Diversity of Living Organisms > Binomial Nomenclature

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In this article, we shall study the taxonomic hierarchy and the concept of species.

The Concept of Species:

A group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding is called species. They are usually described in terms of their characteristics so that organisms which have a lot of similarities are grouped as the same species.

Characteristics of Species:

• Members of species resemble one another more than with individuals of any other species.
• Their morphological characters are similar.
• They interbreed with other individuals within the same group to produce fertile offsprings
• under natural conditions.
• They share a common gene pool. Have similar karyotype and genetic material. They have descended from a common ancestor.
• They are anatomically similar.
• Their biochemistry is similar.

Taxonomic Hierarchy:

• Taxon (Pl – taxa): Taxon is a group of living organisms which is used to represent a concrete unit of classification. It may be large or small. In a taxonomic hierarchy, there are a minimum of seven categories (taxa). Various taxonomic categories are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain.
• Category: A category is a rank or level in the hierarchical classification of organisms. In the hierarchy of categories, the kingdom is the highest and species is the lowest category.

Units of Classification:

Acronym: King Philip’s’s Classmates Sing a Song Of Family Genius Specially

Species:

It is the smallest and basic unit of classification. Taxonomic studies consider a group of individual organisms with fundamental similarities as a species. Thus all the individual members belonging to particular species show all similar characters and can breed among themselves to produce a similar type of organism. We should be able to distinguish one species from the other closely related species based on the distinct morphological differences. All the china rose (Hibiscus) plants are grouped under a species rosa Sinensis. All the potato plants are grouped under species tuberosum.

• House crow commonly called the Indian crow (Corvus splendens) and forest crow commonly called jungle crow or raven (Corvus macrorhynchos) have the same genus but they can not breed among themselves. Hence these are two different species.

• Horse (Equus cabalus) and ass (Equus asinus) are of the same genera but are two different species because they do not breed among themselves. The mule is an artificial hybrid of horse and ass is sterile i.e. it cannot reproduce. Hence the mule is not a species.

• Lion (Panthera leo), Leopard (Panthera pardas) and Tiger (Panthera tigris) belong to the same genus Panthera but their species are leo, pardas and tigris respectively.
• The plants Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), Potato (Solanum tuberosum) and Brinjal (Solanum melongena) belong to the same genus Solanum but their species are lycopersicum, tuberosum, and melongena respectively.

Genus (Pl – genera):

It is a group of organisms of closely related species, which resemble one another in certain characters. The genus may or may not have more than one species. Genera with only one species are called monotypic while those with more than two are called polytypic.

• Banyan tree (Ficus benghalensis) and fig tree (Ficus carica) differ in shape, size, leaves but have a similar reproductive organ like inflorescence. Hence they are of the same genera.
• Lion (Panthera leo), Leopard (Panthera pardas) and Tiger (Panthera tigris) belong to the same genus Panthera. Genus Panthera is different from other genera of cats. Domestic cat and tiger belong to the same family but their genera are different.

• The plants Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), Potato (Solanum tuberosum) and Brinjal (Solanum melongena) belong to the same genus Solanum.

Family:

It is the next category higher to the genus. It is a group of organisms of closely related genera, which resemble one another in certain characters.

• Domestic cat (Felis domestica) and Lio (Panthera leo) belong to cat family Felidae because both of them possess a similar structure and has retractive claws.
• The family of Dogs and Foxes is Canidae.
• Family Gramineae: Wheat, Rice, and maize.
• Family Leguminosae: Gram, Pea, Soyabean
• Family Solanaceae: Genera Solanum, Petunia, Datura

Order:

It is next category higher to the family. It is a group of organisms of closely related families, which resemble one another in major characters. It should be noted that the order is higher taxonomic categories. Hence very few similar characters are shown by members.

• Both the tiger (Panthera tigris) and the wolf (Cannis lupus) possess jaws with powerful incisors and large sharp canines. This adaptation is for flesh-eating. Hence tiger and wolf have the same order Carnivora. Thus Order Carnivora includes families Felidae and Canidae.
• In plant, order, Rosales includes families Leguminosae and Rosaceae.

Class:

It is the next category higher to the order. It is a group of organisms of closely related sub-classes or order, which resemble one another in certain characters. The similarities in the orders of a class are still less than in the families of an order.

• Chordates such as rats, dogs, bats, monkeys, camel are characterized by a hairy exoskeleton, milk glands (mammari glands)and external ears, belong to the same class Mammalia. Class Mammalia includes order Carnivora (has carnivorous animals like lion, tiger, leopards, etc.) and order Primata (includes man, monkey, Chimpanzee, Gorilla, Gibbons, etc)
• All vascular plants are categorized under class Tracheophyta.

Phylum (for animals) and Division (for plants):

It is the next category higher to the class. It is a group of organisms of closely related class, which resemble one another in certain characters. In the case of plants, the term Division is used for the phylum

• all animals which have a notochord present in embryo belong to the phylum Chordata. Classes like Pisces (fishes), Amphibia (frogs and toads), Reptilia (snakes and lizards), Aves (birds) and Mammalia (mammals) are all grouped into a single phylum Chordata.
• All flowering plants are grouped into a single division Angiosperms.

Kingdom:

It is the next category higher to the phylum/division. It is a group of organisms of closely related phyla, which resemble one another in major characters. All animals are grouped into Kingdom Animalia and all plants are grouped into Kingdom Plantae.

Science > Biology > General Biology > Diversity of Living Organisms > Taxonomic Hierarchy

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In the previous article, we have studied the importance of biology. In this article, we shall study different branches of biology.

On the Basis of Kind of Organism:

Depending upon the kind of organism, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Botany: Botany is the scientific study of plants which include algae, fungi, lichens, mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants.
• Zoology:  Zoology involves the study of animals including their classification, their history, their anatomy, and physiology,
• Microbiology: Microbiology is the study of all living organisms that are too small to be visible to the naked eye. This includes bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa, and algae, collectively known as ‘microbes’.
• Human Biology: Human biology is the branch of biology that deals with human beings and human populations. It includes all the aspects of the human as an organism including genetics, ecology, anatomy and physiology, anthropology, and nutrition. Human biology is related to other fields of biology such as medicine, primate biology, and biological anthropology.

On the Basis of Group of Organisms:

Depending upon the group of organisms under the study, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Bacteriology: The science and study of bacteria and their relation to medicine and to other areas such as agriculture (e.g., farm animals) and the industry is called Bacteriology.
• Virology: Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents, including (but not limited to) their taxonomy, disease-producing properties, cultivation, and genetics. It is often considered a part of microbiology or pathology.
• Mycology: Mycology is the branch of biology that deals with the study of fungi. It includes the research of their genetic and biochemical properties and their use in medicine and food along with their hazards.
• Entomology: Entomology is a branch of zoology that studies insects and how they interact with their environment, other species and humans.
• Ichthyology: Ichthyology is the branch of zoology devoted to the study of fishes, which includes bony fish (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fish (Agnatha).
• Herpetology: Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians,  reptiles. Batrachology is a further subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians only.
• Ornithology: Ornithology is the scientific field dedicated to the study of birds.

On the Basis of Approach to Study:

Depending upon the approach of the study, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Anatomy: It is the scientific study focusing on the physical structures and parts of organisms (plants and animals).
• Morphology: Morphology is a branch of biology dealing with the study of the form and structure (internal and external)  of organisms and their specific structural features
• Histology: Histology is the scientific study of the fine detail of biological cells and tissues using microscopes
• Cytology: The study of structure and function of plant and animal cells.
• Physiology: The branch of biology dealing with the functions and activities of living organisms and their parts, including all physical and chemical processes is called physiology.
• Embryology: Embryology is the study of the development of an embryo from the stage of ovum fertilization through to the fetal stage.
• Taxonomy or Systematics: The science of identifying, naming, grouping and classifying plants and animals is called taxonomy or systematics.
• Ecology: Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
• Biogeology: The study of the interaction between the Earth’s biosphere and the lithosphere.
• Biogeography: Biogeography is a study of the distribution of various species and ecosystems geographically and throughout geological time and space.
• Paleontology:  the study of fossils to determine the structure and evolution of extinct animals and plants and the age and conditions of deposition of the rock strata in which they are found is called Palaeontology.
• Evolution: evolution is the branch of biology which studies the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection.
• Genetics: Genetics is a branch of biology that deals with heredity and variations.
• Parasitology: Parasites are those organisms that live on or inside other organisms called the host and draw nourishment from the host are called parasites. The study of parasites is called parasitology. It includes the study of three major groups of animals: parasitic protozoa, parasitic helminths (worms), and those arthropods that directly cause disease or act as vectors of various pathogens.
• Pathology: It is a branch of biology which studies diseases in plant and animals and their treatment.
• Immunology: The immune system protects us from infection through various lines of defense. Immunology is the study of the immune system.
• Eugenics: The study of or belief in the possibility of improving the qualities of the human species or a human population, especially by such means as discouraging reproduction by persons having genetic defects or presumed to have inheritable undesirable traits. Thus it is a science which aims to improve the human race through controlled heredity.
• Biochemistry: Biochemistry is the study of the processes behind all living organisms,

On the Basis of Agriculture and Allied Industries:

With respect to agriculture and allied industries, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Agriculture: It is a branch of biology which deals with raising crops and live stocks such as cows, buffaloes, etc.
• Veterinary Science:  The branch of medicine that deals with the causes, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases and injuries of animals, especially domestic animals.
• Marine Biology: Marine biology is the study of marine organisms, their behaviours, and their interactions with the environment.
• Horticulture: Horticulture is the science and art of producing, improving, marketing, and using fruits, vegetables, flowers, and ornamental plants.
• Animal Husbandry: It is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre, milk, eggs, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock like cows, buffaloes, etc.
• Sericulture: Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.
• Pisciculture: The breeding, rearing, and transplantation of fish by artificial means is called pisciculture.
• Tissue Culture: Tissue culture, a method of biological research in which fragments of tissue from an animal or plant are transferred to an artificial environment in which they can continue to survive and function.
• Molecular Biology: Molecular biology is a branch of science concerning biological activity at the molecular level. The field of molecular biology overlaps with biology and chemistry and in particular, genetics and biochemistry.
• Biotechnology: Biotechnology is the use of biological processes, organisms, or systems to manufacture products intended to improve the quality of human life.
• Cloning: Cloning is a process of asexual reproduction to create offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.
• Bioengineering: It is the branch of biology which with the help of engineering science help in making artificial limbs, joints and other parts of the body using engineering materials and techniques. It also includes the improvement of crops for disease resistance and yield.
• Biomedical Engineering: Biomedical engineering is the application of engineering principles to the fields of biology and health care. Biomedical engineers work with doctors, therapists and researchers to develop systems, equipment, and devices in order to solve clinical problems. The job includes the design, development, production, and maintenance of medical instruments.
• Nuclear biology: Nuclear biology or radiobiology is a branch of biology which studies the effect of radioactivity on living cell and also deals with the development and production of nuclear medicines for diagnosis and treatment of the diseases.
• Space Biology: The study of the survival of living things in a space is called space biology.
• Genomics: Genomics is a study of the genomes of organisms. Its main task is to determine the entire sequence of DNA or the composition of the atoms that make up the DNA and the chemical bonds between the DNA atoms.
• Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the study of living things, usually at the molecular level. Bioinformatics involves the use of computers to collect, organize and use biological information to answer questions in fields like evolutionary biology.
• Biometrics: Biometrics is a technological and scientific authentication method based on biology and used in information assurance (IA). Biometric identification authenticates secure entry, data or access via human biological information such as DNA or fingerprints.
• Forensic science: The forensic sciences are used around the world to resolve civil disputes, to justly enforce criminal laws and government regulations, and to protect public health. The field of forensic science depends on other branches of science, including physics, chemistry, and biology, with its focus being on the recognition, identification, and evaluation of physical evidence. It has become an essential part of the judicial system to achieve information relevant to criminal and legal evidence.
• Genetic Engineering: Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way.

On the Basis of Medical Sciences:

On basis of medical sciences, the branches of biology are as follows:

• Gynecology and Obstetrics: Gynaecology normally means treating women who aren’t pregnant, while obstetrics deals with pregnant women and their unborn children, but there is lots of crossover between the two.
• Orthopedics: It is a branch of medical science which is devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, prevention, and rehabilitation of injuries, disorders, and diseases of the body’s musculoskeletal system. This system includes bones, joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, and tendons.
• Opthalmology: It is the branch of medicine that deals with the anatomy, physiology, and diseases of the eyeball and orbit.
• Dentistry: It is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity.
• Oncology: Oncology is the branch of medicine that researches, identifies and treats cancer.
• Cardiology: Cardiology is a branch of medicine that concerns diseases and disorders of the heart, which may range from congenital defects through to acquired heart diseases such as coronary artery disease and congestive heart failure.
• Urology: Urology is a surgical specialty that deals with the treatment of conditions involving the male and female urinary tract and the male reproductive organs.
• Nephrology: Nephrology is a branch of medical science that deals with diseases of the kidneys.
• Pediatrics: Pediatrics is the branch of medicine dealing with the health and medical care of infants, children, and adolescents from birth up to the age of 18.
• Dermatology: Dermatology is the branch of medicine dealing with diagnosing and treating skin diseases affecting the skin, hair, and nails.
• Physiotherapy: Physiotherapy is a branch of medicine which uses a treatment method that focuses on the science of movement and helps people to restore, maintain and maximize their physical strength, function, motion and overall well-being by addressing the underlying physical issues.

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Prior to 1969 organisms were classified into two kingdoms: the Plant Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom and on the basis of a cell, organisms were classified into two categories Prokaryotae or Monera (which comprised bacteria) and Eukaryotae (which comprised animals, plants, fungi, and protists). The concept of three domains of life was proposed by Carl Woese and others in 1969. The evolutionary model proposed by them is based on the difference in the sequence of nucleotides in ribosomal RNAs (rRNA) in cells and lipid structure of cell membrane and its sensitivity to antibiotics. According to them, all organisms can be classified into three different domains – Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, and Eukarya. All living things share certain genes, yet no two types of organisms have the same full sets of genes.

Scientists think that all living things have descended with modification from a single common ancestor. Thus, all of life connected. Yet, there are many different lineages representing different species. This diversity stems from the fact that genetic changes accumulate over the years. Also, organisms change as they become suited to their own special environments.

Archaea and Bacteria share a few common characteristic traits but do not have common ancestors. At the same time, they show some peculiar traits of their own. Carl Woese divided Prokaryotae into two groups – Archaea and Bacteria, and thus the concept of three domains of life came into existence.

Reasons for Selecting  rRNA for Categorization:

• It is present in all organisms and is the most conserved structure throughout nature
• It is functionally similar between organisms and is involved in protein synthesis
• Its sequence changes slowly and hence can be observed across long periods of time
• The rRNA sequences can be aligned, or matched up, between 2 organisms.
• The nucleotide sequence of rRNA gives a good indication of the relationship in different living groups.

Domain Archaea or Archaebacteria (Greek – archae – ancient):

• These are the most primitive form of life.
• These are the most ancient bacteria. Some fossils found with these bacteria are 3.5 billion years old. As they were from the time of harshest conditions on the earth, they adapted themselves to live in any harshest condition. These bacteria are special since they live in some of the harshest habitats such as extreme salty areas (halophiles), hot springs (thermoacidophiles) and marshy areas (methanogens).
• They have unique cell membrane chemistry. Archaebacteria have cell membranes made of ether-linked phospholipids, while in case of bacteria and eukaryotes both make their cell membranes out of ester-linked phospholipids. The presence of this ether containing linkages in Archaea adds to their ability to withstand extreme temperature and highly acidic conditions.
• Their cell membrane has no peptidoglycans. Archaebacteria use sugar that is similar to, but not the same as, the peptidoglycan sugar used in bacterial cell membranes.
• They are not influenced by antibiotics that destroy bacteria.
• Their rRNA is unique and is much different from the rRNA of bacteria. Their t-RNA and rRNA possess unique nucleotide sequences found nowhere else.
• Most of the archaebacteria are autotrophs. They use pigment bacteriorhodopsin for photosynthesis.

Examples: Extreme halophiles – i.e. organisms which thrive in the highly salty environment, and hyperthermophiles – i.e. the organisms which thrive in the extremely hot environment, are best examples of Archaea.

Classification of Archaebacteria on the Basis of Habitat and metabolic activities:

Methanogens or Methanogenic Archaebacteria:

As they are anaerobic autotrophs, they produce methane as a result of their metabolic activities. They produce methane gas from carbon dioxide and acetic acid from sewage in the marshy condition.

CO₂ + 4H₂ →  CH₄ + 2H₂O

CH₃COOH →  CH₄ + CO₂

Methanogens are present in the gut of several ruminant animals such as cows and buffaloes and they are responsible for the production of methane (biogas) from the dung of these animals. Methane is greenhouse gas that leads to global warming. Methanogens die in the presence of oxygen. Hence they can be found in swamp and marshes in which all oxygen is consumed. The typical smell in these areas is due to the production of methane. Methanogens help in the fermentation of cellulose. They do not decompose the organic matter but utilize the end products of decomposition.

Examples: Methanobacillus, Thiobacillus etc.

Thermoacidophiles or Thermoacidophilic Archaebacteria:

They are aerobic or facultative anaerobic chemoautotrophs. They are adapted to live in extremely hot (about 80 °C) and extremely low temperature (below freezing point) and acidic conditions (pH up to 2). They are found in hot springs (Sulfolobus), in refuse piles of coal mines (Thermoplasma) or geothermal area of Iceland (Thermoproteus).

Most of the thermoacidophiles use hydrogen sulphide as their energy source. They are chemotrophs

2S   +   2H₂O +  3O₂   →   2H₂SO₄ + Energy  (aerobic condition)

Under anaerobic condition, sulphur is reduced to hydrogen sulphide. They precipitate bicarbonate into carbonate due to their activities.

Examples: Thermoplasma, Picrophilus, Thermococci, Pyrococcus, Sulfolobus, etc.

Halophiles or Halophilic Archaebacteria:

They are aerobic or facultative anaerobic heterotrophs. They live in salty environments such as a Great Salt Lake or the Dead Sea, marshes, brine, salt-rich soil where the salt concentration is in range of 2.5 M to 5 M. They have high intracellular concentrations. Their enzymes and ribosomes function efficiently at higher salt concentration.

They contain special photoreceptor pigment called bacteriorhodopsin. Due to which they acquire a purple colour. Bacteriorhodopsin protects halophiles from strong solar radiations. It helps in the synthesis of ATP. It shows the chemotrophic nature of nutrition.

Examples: Halobacteria, halococcus, etc.

Domain Bacteria or Eubacteria:

• These are prokaryotes.
• The cell walls of bacteria; unlike the domains of Archaea and Eukarya, contain peptidoglycan.
• Their membranes are made of unbranched fatty acid chains attached to glycerol by ester linkages.
• They are sensitive to antibiotics.
• They are autotrophs; synthesize their own food, or heterotrophs. Most of the bacterial species are heterotrophs. They get their food from organic matter.
• Naked DNA molecule lies in the cell cytoplasm.
• Only one set of genes, usually in a single-stranded loop is present.
• There is a great deal of diversity in this domain, such that it is next to impossible to determine how many species of bacteria exist on the planet.
• Cyanobacteria and mycoplasmas are the best examples of bacteria.

Domain Eukarya:

• Cells have a eukaryotic organization.
• The cell membrane is composed of a tri-laminar protein-lipid-protein layer similar to that in bacteria.
• Peptidoglycans are not found.
• They are resistant to traditional antibiotics.
• Cells are organized into tissues in case of kingdom Plantae as well as kingdom Animalia.
• The cell was is present only in the kingdom Plantae.
• Eukaryotes are further grouped into Kingdom Protista (euglenoids, algae, protozoans), Kingdom Fungi (yeast, mold, etc.), Kingdom Mycota (Phycomycetes, zygomycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes) Kingdom Plantae (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms) and Kingdom Animalia (all animals).

Another system of grouping organisms divides all life into six major categories called kingdoms. The six kingdoms consist of four kingdoms within the domain Eukarya (the Kingdoms Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, and Protista), one kingdom in the domain Archaea (Kingdom Archaea) and one kingdom in the domain Bacteria (KingdomBacteria). Many biologists recognize these six kingdoms and three domains, but some biologists use other systems of grouping.

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Scientists have identified and named 1.7 to 1.8 million species of living organisms. Of these, about 1.2 million are animal species while 0.5 million are plant species. The group of insects is the largest group with 1.025 million species. According to biologists some 5 to 30 million species of organisms exist on the earth. The variety that we see in the living things that exist on the earth is called biological diversity or biodiversity. There is variety in their shapes, sizes, bodies apart and lifespan. We should remember here that as we explore new areas, and even old ones, new organisms are continuously being identified. In this article, we shall study the need for classification of living organisms.

Time Line of Classification:

Aristotle, Greek philosopher (384 – 322 B.C.):

Aristotle developed the first classification system, which divided all known organisms into two groups: plants and animals. Aristotle’s system of classification was not full proof because many animals were there they didn’t fit in the classification. Aristotle’s limited classification system was used for nearly 2000 years.

Parasara (Indian sage) (Before Christ):

On the basis of comparative morphology, he classified plants, whose detail is given in his compilation called Vrikshayurveda. He group families of plants under name ganas. These ganas, can be clearly distinguished and recognized even today.

Charaka Indian Doctor and Father of Ayurveda (first century A.D.):

In his book ‘Charak Sanhita’ he classified 200 kinds of animals and 340 kinds of plants.

John Ray British Botanist (1628-1705):

He introduced the term ‘species’. He collected plant species from all over Europe and give an improved form of classification of plants.

Carlous Linnaeus Swedish Naturalist (1707 – 1778) :

He introduced the binomial nomenclature system. He listed about 5900 species of plants in his book ‘Species Plantarum’ (1753). He listed about 4200 species of animals in his book ‘Systema Naturae’ (1758). He is called the father of taxonomy.

George Cavier American biologist (1769 – 1832):

He introduced the natural classification system. He took into account not only the structure but also the functions of various structures and the ancestral history of the organism. He studied related fossils.

Sir Julain Huxley (1940):

He introduced the term ‘New Systematics’ for the classification of living organisms based on the theory of evolution and phylogeny.

Classification and its Need:

The term classification was coined by A. P. de Condole. Classification is the process by which anything is grouped into convenient categories based on some easily observable characters. There are a large number of organisms found on Earth. They show variations in their shape, size, structure, habit, habitat, nutrition, etc. It is difficult to remember the characteristics of all the organisms without their proper arrangement.

The classification helps us to explain unity in the diversity of the organisms. The classification places an organism amongst those which have common characteristics.

Systematics and Taxonomy:

• Systematics:  Systematics is a scientific study of similarities and differences among different kinds of organisms and also includes identification, nomenclature, and classification.
• Taxonomy: It is the branch of biology which deals with the collection, identification, nomenclature, description, and classification of plants and animals.
• Generally, the terms taxonomy, systematics and classification are used interchangeably. But Simpson said that these are three separate fields of study and should not be confused with each other.
• We know the plants and animals in our own area by their local names. These local names would vary from place to place, even within a country. Hence, there is a need to standardize the naming of living organisms such that a particular organism is known by the same name all over the world. This process is called nomenclature.

Classical or Old Systematics:

Classical systematics is based on the study of mainly mor­phological traits of one or a few specimens with supporting evidence from other fields. In classical systematics, species were considered to be an independent and immutable (changeless) entity and work of the creator.

New Systematics or Modern Systematics:

The term new systematics was coined by Julian Huxley (1940). New systematics is the systematic study which takes into consideration all types of characters including those from classification morphology, anatomy, cytology, physiology, biochemistry, ecology, genetics, development (embryology), behaviour, etc. of the whole population instead of a few typo­logical specimens.

Characteristics of New Systematics:

• The importance is given to subspecies and populations instead of species.
• The biological definition is replaced by a morphological definition. It considers other branches of biology like cytology, physiology, biochemistry, genetics, etc.
• New systematics is based on the study of all types of variations in the species.
• Along with morphological characters, other investigations are also carried out to know the variety of traits.
• Delimitation of species is carried out on the basis of all types of biological traits. It is also called biological delimitation.
• Statistical data and techniques are used to know the traits in the degree of primitiveness, advancement and to find Inter-relationships.
• According to new systematics, species are not fixed or static but highly dynamic.

Basics of Systematics:

• Characterization: The organism to be studied is described for all its morphological and other characteristics.
• Identification:
• Based on the studied characteristics, the identification of the organ­ism is carried out to know whether it is similar to any of the known groups or taxa.
• Classification: The organism is now classified on the basis of its resemblance to different taxa. It is the arrangement of organisms into groups based on their relationship. If the organism cannot be classified under known groups, then a new group or taxon is created to accommodate it.
• Nomenclature: After placing the organism in various taxa, its correct name is determined.

Objectives of Systematics and Taxonomy:

• To know various kinds of plants on the earth with their names, affinities, geographical distribution, habit, characteristics, and their economic importance.
• To have a reference system for all organisms with which scientists can work.
• To demonstrate manifold diversities of organisms and their phylogenetic (evolutionary) relationship.
• To ascertain nomenclature.

Advantages of Systematics:

• It is used in a study of other disciplines of biology. The knowledge gained through systematics is assembled for use in the field of morphology, physiology, anatomy, pathology, genetics, evolution, medicine, agriculture, forestry, and industries.
• It gives an idea about the organic diversity, its origin, and evolution. Using a few representatives from each group we can acquire knowledge of other organisms.
• It helps in the identification of crop pests and in solving the problem of many epidemic diseases.
• It helps in finding out new food resources such as fishes, arthropods, algae, etc.
• Many organisms are indicators of pollution, fossil fuels and types of minerals present in the soil. This can be achieved using systematics.

Phylogeny:

The evolutionary history of a particular species is called phylogeny. Classification based on their phylogenic relationship or on the basis of evolution is called evolutionary or phylogenetic classification.

Many groups of organisms are now extinct, and without their fossils, we would not have a picture of how modern life is interrelated. We express the relationships among groups of organisms through diagrams called cladograms, which are like genealogies of species.

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Scientists have identified and named 1.7 to 1.8 million species of living organisms. Of these, about 1.2 million are animal species while 0.5 million are plant species. The group of insects is the largest group with 1.025 million species. According to biologists some 5 to 30 million species of organisms exist on the earth. The variety that we see in the living things that exist on the earth is called biological diversity or biodiversity. There is variety in their shapes, sizes, bodies apart and lifespan. The term biological diversity (or Biodiversity) was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1986. The term biodiversity includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. In this article, we shall study the basis of biodiversity.

Variety in Size:

There are shortest lawn grasses, at the same time redwood trees of California of approximate size 100 m. We have microscopic bacteria of a few micrometres in size. At the same time, we have a blue whale of approximate sizes of 30 m.

Variety in Shape:

There are plants like Banyan, guava with branches, while there are plants like coconut and palm which has no branches. There are tiny animals like bacteria, amoeba which can only be seen through a microscope. At the same time, we have gigantic animals like an elephant.

Variety in Body Parts:

Some plants are flowering plants while some plants are non-flowering plants. In some animals limbs are present for locomotion while in some plants flagella or cilia are present. Amoeba moves by forming pseudopodia.

Variety in Life Span:

Some pine trees live for thousands of years while insects like mosquitoes die within a few days.

Variety in Complexity:

Some animals like an amoeba, paramoecium are unicellular while animals like monkey, elephant, human are multicellular.

Variety due to Habitat:

There are some plants like hydria which are freshwater dwelling. Some algae are marine. While trees like Banyan are terrestrial. Fishes are aquatic (freshwater or marine). Tigers, humans are terrestrial (land-dwelling). Birds and monkeys are arboreal (tree-dwelling). Frog and tortoise are amphibians i.e. they can live on the land and in the water. Animals and plants of a desert, snow region, and coastal areas and of same class show differences in their body structure.

Variety due to Mode of Nutrition:

Plants are autotrophic because they are the producer. They produce their own food material. Animals are heterotrophs. They depend on plants and other animals for their food. They are consumers. Bacteria are saprophytic. They depend on dead decaying matter for their nutrition. They are decomposers. Planta like Cuscuta is parasitic. It depends on another plant for nutrition without giving any return to the host plant. Some animals are vegetarian (e,g. elephant), some are nonvegetarian i.e. carnivorous (e.g. tiger). Humans are both vegetarian and non-vegetarian(omnivorous).

Variety due to Colours:

We can find colourless or even transparent worms, At the same time, we can find brightly coloured birds and flowers.

Variety in the Same Class:

There is more variety in the body structure, life patterns and habitats of species that belong to the same class. Let us consider class Pisces of the animal kingdom which includes fishes of all kind. Some fishes are of freshwater while some leaves in seawater (marine). Some have a tiny shape while some are gigantic. Some use tail fin for changing direction while some use it as a weapon of self-defence. Some have a shorter life while some have a very long life. Thus variety in habitat, size, body structure and lifespan can be observed in the same class.

The basis of Classification:

This variety of life around us has evolved on the earth over millions of years. We look for similarities among the organisms, which will allow us to put them into different classes and then study different classes or groups as a whole. For this, we need to decide which characters decide fundamental differences among organisms. This would form the basis of classification.

Importance of Biodiversity:

• Each organism in an ecosystem has a special role to play, hence biodiversity Increases ecosystem productivity.
• It promotes soil formation and prohibits soil erosion.
• It provides more fruit resources.
• It provides employment to local people by offering an environment for recreation and tourism.
• It Provides medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs.
• It provides security against natural disaster and provides speedy recovery from them.
• They contribute to environmental and climatic stability.
• It reduces pollution.
• It protects freshwater resources.
• It is required for breeding programmes in agriculture, horticulture, sericulture, and apiculture.
• Biodiversity maintains the balance of the ecosystem.
• As the human being is part of the ecosystem any damage to biodiversity will cause damage to the support system and it may lead to a threat to human existence. Hence biodiversity should be conserved.

The Threat to Biodiversity:

Increase in Human Population:

Due to the increase in the population more and more land is required for agriculture, housing, for making roads, constructing a dam, bridges, electrical power stations, and industries. In the last 70 years, there is a rapid decline in biodiversity due to above reasons.

Deforestation and Overgrazing:

Indiscriminate cutting of trees for wood causes deforestation. Overgrazing by cattle and sheep causes a decline in grassland. This creates a loss of habitat for wild animals.

Pollution:

Insecticides used in agricultural practices, toxic elements released by industries, petroleum products pollute water and air. The species which are unable to tolerate this pollutant level in air or water get eliminated.

Introduction of Exotic Species:

An introduction of a new species from some other area in a new area is called the introduction of exotic species. These species compete with native species in that area. It may lead to the extinction of local species.

Climatic Changes:

Global warming, Increase in temperature, changing rain pattern and melting glaciers are causing great danger to biodiversity.

Human Greed:

International trade in wildlife and wildlife products for the decorative, medical purpose has threatened many species.

Role of Biodiversity:

Biodiversity maintains equilibrium in nature because of which all kinds of organisms are able to survive. The bacteria and fungi recycle organic matter from dead decaying organisms or living organisms to feed other diverse organisms.
Green plants and algae trap solar energy during photosynthesis and produce food which is utilized by all living organisms. Insects and bats pollinate flowers. Animals are medium for dispersion of seeds. Ecosystems such as the forests, deserts, aquatic bodies, wetlands are self-sufficient and sustain their own typicality. Some ecosystems are part of their unique food chains and food webs.

Measures to Conserve Biodiversity:

It is the duty of every human being to protect biodiversity. Conservation keeps ecosystems stable. Many plants have become extinct. Some are close to extinction. Endangered species need to be protected. Fish and mollusc stocks have to be conserved and prevented from overexploitation by humans for food.

Government and non-government organizations are working for the conservation of biodiversity through legislation. Banning animal killing, banning illegal tree cutting, making zoos, national parks, botanical gardens, and biosphere reserves etc. “Operation Tiger” and “Operation elephants” are projects that have helped in preventing the decline in their numbers due to habitat destruction.

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Scientists have identified and named 1.7 to 1.8 million species of living organisms. Of these, about 1.2 million are animal species while 0.5 million are plant species. The group of insects is the largest group with 1.025 million species. According to biologists some 5 to 30 million species of organisms exist on the earth. The variety that we see in the living things that exist on the earth is called biological diversity or biodiversity. There is variety in their shapes, sizes, bodies apart and lifespan. The term biological diversity (or Biodiversity) was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1986. The term biodiversity includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Types of Species Diversity:

Genetic Diversity:

Genes give specific characteristics to an individual. Each member of any animal or plant species differs from other individuals in its genetic material because of a large number of possible combinations in the genes. Due to this genetic variability, a healthy breeding population of a species is assured.

The diversity in wild species forms the ‘gene pool’ from which our crops and domestic animals have been developed over thousands of years. Using this gene pool new varieties of more productive and diseases resistant crops are obtained. Similarly, the breed of better domestic animals is obtained. In modern biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques, genes are manipulated for developing better types of medicines and a variety of industrial products.

Species Diversity:

The numbers of species of plants and animals that are present in a region constitute its species diversity. This diversity can be observed both in natural ecosystems and in agricultural ecosystems. Natural tropical forests have much greater species richness than plantations. A natural forest ecosystem provides fruit, fuelwood, fodder, fiber, gum, resin and medicines to local people. Areas that are rich in species diversity are called ‘hot spots’ of diversity.

Ecosystem or Community Diversity:

There are a large variety of different ecosystems on earth, Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region. Distinctive land ecosystems include landscapes such as forests, grasslands, deserts, mountains, etc. Aquatic ecosystems include rivers, lakes, and the sea. Due to overuse or misuse productivity of the ecosystem is decreases and the ecosystem becomes degraded.

Types of Ecosystem Community Diversity:

R.H. Whittaker proposed a four-level of diversity.

• Point Diversity: This is the diversity on the smallest scale. It is diversity in microhabitat.
• Alpha Diversity:  It is diversity over the comparatively larger area. It is also called local diversity. It includes a variety of living organisms occurring in a particular habitat. It is usually expressed by the number of species in that ecosystem. This is measured by counting the number of taxa (distinct groups of organisms) within the ecosystem.
• Gamma Diversity: It is diversity over larger areas or regions such as islands or landscapes. It is a measure of the overall diversity of the different ecosystems (alpha diversity) within a region. It is the inclusive diversity of all the habitat types within an area (region).
• Epsilon Diversity: The epsilon or regional diversity is defined as the total diversity of a group of areas of gamma diversity.
• Explanation:
• A single plant can be considered as an example of a unit of alpha diversity, then a leaf of a plant can be considered as point diversity.  The group of plants together in a region can be considered as gamma diversity. The forest in which this region is located can be considered as epsilon diversity.

Mathematical Approach Towards Biodiversity:

Beta Diversity:

R.H. Whittaker defined it as “the extent of change in community composition, or degree of community differentiation, in relation to a complex-gradient of the environment, or a pattern of environments”. Beta diversity is defined as the ratio between gamma (regional) and alpha (local) diversities. Beta diversity does not only account for the relationship between local and regional diversity but also informs about the degree of differentiation among biological communities. It is a bridge from the alpha (local) diversity to the gamma (regional) diversity.

Delta Diversity:

Delta diversity is defined as the change in species composition and abundance between areas of gamma diversity, which occur within an area of epsilon diversity. It shows differentiation diversity over wide geographic areas.

Region of Mega Diversity:

The entire world is divided into six biogeographic regions. They are Palearctic (Europe and Asia), Nearctic (North America), Neotropical (Mexico, Central, and South America), Ethiopian (Africa), Indian (Southeast Asia, Indonesia) and Australian (Australia and New Guinea). The organisms found in these regions are adapted to the climate of these regions. Certain kinds of organisms are common to all regions while some are restricted to certain regions only. e.g. elephants are found only in Asia and Africa and nowhere else in the world. The grass is found all over the world.

The warm and humid tropical regions of the earth between the tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, are rich in diversity of life i.e. plants, animals, and microorganisms. This region is called the region of mega diversity.

More than half of the biodiversities of the world are concentrated in 12 countries. They are Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, Zaire, Madagascar, Australia, China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia.

‘Hotspots’ are regions of the world where many different kinds of organisms live. Many of these organisms are not found elsewhere e.g. many species of frogs live only in the Western Ghats of India. India has two biodiversities ‘hotspots’. The Western Ghats and North Eastern regions (including Eastern Himalayas).

The Uniqueness of Indian Biodiversity:

India is one of the 12 mega diversity countries in the world. India is divided into 10 biogeographical regions. India has a variety of physical features and climatic conditions. India has forests, grasslands, deserts, rivers, wetlands, coastal and marine regions which act as ecosystem and habitat for a variety of animals. Hence India has a great biodiversity.

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Biology is a branch of science which studies living beings that all plants and animals including humans. Biology examines the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of living things. It classifies and describes organisms, their functions, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment. Four principles form the foundation of modern biology are cell theory, evolution, genetics, and homeostasis. In this article, we shall study the characteristics of life.

Growth and Change:

All living organisms have the ability to grow and change. An increase in mass and an increase in the number of individuals are two characteristics of the growth. Multicellular organisms grow by cell division. A seed under the right conditions will sprout and form a seedling that will grow into a larger plant.  

Even the smallest bacteria grow by binary fission. The growth is also required for the persistence of the species. The growth of plants takes place throughout life and at a specific portion of the body but the growth in the animal is time-bound and overall. After some period, the growth in animals occurs by cell division of certain tissues to replace the lost cells. In unicellular organisms, the growth is by the increase in the mass.

Nonliving objects like mountains, boulders and sand dunes also grow but this growth is due to the accumulation of substance on their surface. Thus both the living and non-living grow. Hence growth cannot be considered as characteristic of life.

Reproduction:

All living organisms (multicellular and unicellular) have the ability to reproduce. Living things make more organisms like themselves. If a species does not reproduce the next generation, the species will go extinct. Reproduction is the process of producing the next generation. Reproduction may be a sexual or asexual process. Sexual reproduction involves two parents and the fusion of gametes, haploid sex cells from each parent. Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically unique and increases genetic variation within a species. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent. It occurs without a fusion of gametes and produces offspring that are all genetically identical to the parent. Genetic variation is not possible in asexual reproduction.

Many organisms like mules, sterile worker bee, warblers, infertile human couples, etc. do not reproduce. Thus reproduction cannot be considered as a characteristic feature of living organisms.

Cellular Organization:

All living organisms, whether made up of one cell or many cells, have some degree of organization. A cell is the smallest unit that can perform all life’s processes. Some organisms, like bacteria, are made up of one cell and are called unicellular organisms. Other organisms, such as humans or higher-level plants, are made up of multiple cells and are called multicellular organisms.

Complex multicellular organisms at the highest level, the organism is made up of organ systems, or groups of specialized parts that carry out a certain function in the organism. For example, the digestive system of humans. Organ systems are made up of organs. For example, the digestive system is made of organs like mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine, etc. Organs are structures that carry out specialized jobs within an organ system. Thus in the digestive system, the stomach performs the function of churning the food and add acid to it. All organs are made up of tissues. Tissues are groups of cells that have similar abilities and that allow the organ to function. Tissues are made up of cells. A cell is covered by a membrane, contains all genetic information necessary for replication, and be able to carry out all cell functions. Within each cell are organelles. Organelles are tiny structures that carry out functions necessary for the cell to stay alive. Organelles are made up of biological molecules, the chemical compounds that provide physical structure and that bring about movement, energy use, and other cellular functions. All biological molecules are made up of atoms. Atoms are the simplest particle of an element that retains all the properties of a certain element.

Beyond the organism level, organisms form populations which make up parts of an ecosystem. Different ecosystems collectively form the biosphere. Thus the cellular organization is a defining feature of living organisms.

Metabolism:

Metabolism is essentially a collection of chemical reactions occurring within the body (or cell). In body two activities are continuously taking place anabolic activities (making up) and catabolic activities (breaking up). All living organisms are made up of chemical substances. These chemical substances belong to different classes like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, etc. Collectively they are called biomolecules. During anabolic activities, the food material is digested, absorbed and assimilated in the body. In catabolic activities, the stored substances are broken down by hydrolysis or oxidation to produce energy in the form of ATP which is required for doing regular activities by the body. Metabolism includes processes such as protein synthesis, chemical digestion, cell division, or energy transformation.

Metabolism is observed in all living organisms. Hence metabolism is a defining feature of all living beings.

Maintain Homeostasis:

All living things, from single cells to entire organisms, have mechanisms that allow them to maintain stable internal conditions despite changes in their external environment. This process is called homeostasis and is an important characteristic of all living organisms. By this process, the body temperature, sugar level in the body is maintained at a constant level. Multicellular organisms usually have more than one way of maintaining important aspects of their internal environment.

Without these mechanisms, organisms can die. For example, a cell’s water content is closely controlled by the taking in or releasing water. A cell that takes in too much water will rupture and die. A cell that doesn’t get enough water will also shrivel and die. It is a vital characteristic of life. If it is disturbed, it will result in diseases and if not controlled can threaten the life of the organism.

Responding to the Environment:

All living organisms respond to their environment. Living things know what is going on around them (consciousness) and respond to the changes in the environment. The response may be physical, chemical or biological. Human beings are only animals with self-consciousness. When touch me not plant is touched its leaves close. The Venus flytrap traps insects.

The stem of the plant moves in the direction of light and above the ground. (positively phototropic and negatively geotropic. The Root grows towards the soil and away from light (positively geotropic and negatively phototropic).

Heredity:

Heredity means that our genetic information can be passed from one generation to another. This way characteristics are transferred from one generation to the other.

Adaptation:

An adaptation refers to the process of becoming adjusted to an environment. Adaptations may include structural, physiological, or behavioral traits that improve an organism’s likelihood of survival.

Conclusion: Characteristics of Life of Living Organisms?

Thus the main characteristics of life (living organisms) are the self-replicating, evolving and self-regulating interactive systems that can respond to external stimuli.

Next Topic: Biodiversity

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