A proposal is main ingredient of a valid contract. The term “proposal” of the Indian Contract Act is synonymous to the term “Offer” in English law. Section 2(a)of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines proposal as “when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal”. The person making proposal/offer is called the proposer/offeror and the person to which the proposal is made is called propose or offeree. In this article, we shall discuss types of offer. Section 9 talks of an express offer, express acceptance, implied offer, and implied acceptance. in this article, we shall study types of an offer.\

Section 9 in The Indian Contract Act, 18729. Promises, express and implied:

In so far as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be express. In so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be implied. —In so far as the proposal or acceptance of any promise is made in words, the promise is said to be express. In so far as such proposal or acceptance is made otherwise than in words, the promise is said to be implied.

Types of an Offer:

Express Offer:

When the offer is made by express communication then the offer is said to be an express offer. The express offer can be made face to face or via telephone. The express offer in written format can be made via text messages, advertisements, letters or e-mail.

A written application by a candidate for a post of manager in a written form is an express offer. Confirmation of his appointment with the explanation of terms of employment by the vice president of a company who is authorized to do so by telephone is also an express offer.\

Implied Offer:

when the offer is not communicated expressly but communicated by conduct or by the circumstances of the case, then offer is called an implied offer.

When we are waiting for a bus to go to a certain place, the bus which can take us to the place where we desire to go arrives and halts at the bus stop. We enter the bus and pay requisite fair. A ticket is given to us. When destination comes the bus halts at the stop and we board down the bus.. By entering the bus we accept the offer. Thus acceptance is also by conduct. Such offers are implied offers.

In Uptron Rural District Council v. Powell, 1942 1 All ER 220 case, the defendant has asked the plaintiff to do the services as he thought they will do it for free. But as the service was not entitled to a free service zone the plaintiff demanded money for their services. It was held that the defendant desired and requested Upton’s services, according to the court, and they were given. As a result, the services were deemed to be delivered based on an implied commitment to pay.

Special or Specific Offer:

Special offer means an offer made to (a) a particular person or (b) a group of person. It can be accepted only by that person to whom it is made. communication of acceptance is necessary in case of a specific offer.

A offers to buy a car from B for ₹10 Lakh. Thus, a specific offer is made to a specific person, and only B can accept the offer. Communication from B for acceptance or rejection is necessary.

It is bilateral offer. In this type of offer, acceptance must be communicated, and all parties involved promise to provide some consideration to others.

In Boulton v. Jones, (1857) 2H and N564 case, the defendant i.e. Jones sent a written order for goods to a shop which is owned by Brocklehurst and which was addressed to him by name. Unknown to the defendant, Brocklehurst had earlier that day sold and transferred his business to Boulton. But Boulton fulfilled the order and delivered the goods to the defendant without notifying him that he had taken over the business. The defendant accepted the goods and consumed them in the belief that they had been supplied by Brocklehurst. When he received Boulton’s invoice he refused to pay it claiming that he had intended to deal with Brocklehurst personally, since he had dealt with them previously and had a set-off on which he had intended to rely, for which the plaintiff sued him. The court held that the defendant i.e. Jones was not liable for the price. When a Contract is made for the identity of the person is important to the Contract. Hence, there was no Contract. Pollock said that the rule of law is clear, that if you propose to make a contract with A, then B cannot substitute himself for A without your consent and to your disadvantage, securing to himself all the benefit of the contract. 

General Offer:

General offer means an offer which is made to the public in general. A General offer can be accepted by anyone. If offeree fulfills the terms and conditions which are given in offer then offer is accepted. Communication of acceptance is not necessary in the case of a general offer.

General offer is unilateral offer. For instance, advertisements can be considered unilateral offers. Display of goods by a vendor can also be a unilateral offer as any individual can choose to buy a product or service from a shopkeeper which results in a contract.  In this case, the offeror does not wait for communication of acceptance.

In Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co. 1893 case the defendant company advertised that a reward would be given to any person who would suffer from influenza after using the medicine (Smoke balls) made by the company according to the printed directions. One lady, Mrs, Carlill (the plaintiff), purchased and used the medicine according to the printed directions of the company but suffered from influenza, She filed a suit to recover the reward. The defendant’s contention was that the plaintiff has not accepted the offer by communicated consent to the offer. The court held that there was a contract as she had accepted a general offer by using the medicine in the prescribed manner. Still, she suffered from influenza, hence she is liable for getting the reward from the company.

Cross Offer:

When two parties exchange identical offers in ignorance at the time of
each other’s offer the offer’s are called cross offer. Two cross offer does not constitute a contract. In the cross offer, the offers are made by the same parties to one another, each party not knowing about the offer made by the other party.  The terms and conditions contained in cross offers are the same. Note that in this case, both are offeror and same time offerree. There is no specific acceptance. Hence it cannot become an agreement. In such cases, a contract comes into existence when any of the
parties, accept the cross offer made by the other party.

Example: A offers by a letter to sell 100 cycles at ₹1,000 per cycle. On the same day, without knowledge B also writes to A offering to buy 100 cycles at ₹1,000 per cycle. In both, the cases offer is there but another main ingredient acceptance of the agreement is missing. If A accepts offer of B then it leads to a contract.

In Tinn v. Hoffman & Co., (1873) 29 LT 271 case, the defendant wrote to the plaintiff offering to sell a certain quantity of iron at a certain price. On the same day without knowledge the plaintiff wrote to the defendant that he want to buy the same quantity of iron at the same price. The letters crossed in the Post. The plaintiff contended that there was a concluded contract. But the Court held that the defendant were not liable by the simultaneous offers, each made in ignorance of the other. Blackburn J. said “when contract is made between two parties, there is a promise by one in consideration of the promise made by the other, there are two assenting mind, the parties agreeing in opinion and one having promises in consideration of the promise made by the other- there is exchange of promise. But I do not think exchanging offers would , upon the principle, be at all the same thing….. The promise or offer made on each side in ignorance of the promise or offer made on the other side, neither of them can be construed as an acceptance of the other.”

Counter Offer:

When the offeree gives a qualified acceptance of the offer subject to
modified and variations in the terms of the original offer, then the offer made by the original offeree is called counter-offer. The counter-offer amounts to the rejection of the original offer.

By the counter-offer following legal effects come into existence (a) Rejection of original offer, (b) The original offer lapses, and (c) A counter offer result is a new offer.

Example: A offered to sell his old car to B for ₹ 1,00,000. B replied, “I am ready to pay ₹ 90.000”. On A’s refusal to sell at this price, B agreed to pay ₹1,00,0000. Now A is not bound to sell his car to B at ₹ 1,00,000. Initial offer to sell the car for ₹ 1,00,000 was made by A. B rejected the offer by giving a counter-offer to buy the car at ₹ 90,000. A refused this counter-offer. Now again B is giving a new offer to A to buy the car at ₹ 10,000. Thus as offeree, he has the right to accept or reject the new offer by B. Note that a counter-offer amounts to a rejection of the original offer.

In Harvey v.  Facey, ((1893) A. C. 552) case the plaintiffs telegraphed to the defendants, writing, “Will you sell us Bumper Hall Pen? Telegraph lowest cash price”. The defendants replied, also by a telegram, “Lowest price for Pen, £ 900”. The plaintiffs immediately sent their last telegram stating, “We agree to buy Pen for £ 900 asked by you”. The defendants, however, refused to sell the plot of land at that price. The court held that the defendants gave only the lowest price and did not express their willingness to sell the plot of the land. The offer was made by the plaintiff in his last telegram to the defendant which was never accepted by the defendant.

 In Philip & Co. v. Knoblanch ((1907) S. C. 994) case A merchant (the plaintiff) wrote to a firm of oil millers (the defendant), “I am offering today plate linseed for January-February shipment to Litth and have pleasure in quoting you 100 tons at usual plate terms. I shall glad to hear if you will buy and await reply”. The oil miller telegraphed the next day: “Accept”, and confirmed it by letter. It was held that the letter by the plaintiff has all the characteristics of a valid offer and contract was concluded by the defendant by the telegram.

In Hyde v. Wrench, (1840) 49 ER 132 case, the defendant(offeror) offered to sell his farm for £1000 but the Plaintiff(offeree) offered him £950 and subsequently rejected the offer. So, the offeree filed the case as the offeror was bind by the contract but it was held that as soon as offeree put the condition the first offer becomes void which means that the offeror is not bounded by the contract as the original offer was rejected by the offeree.

Standing or Open or Continuous Offer:

An offer is allowed to remain open for acceptance over a period of time is known as standing, open or continually offer.

Example: A contract for the supply of goods for a big canteen is a kind of standing offer. In such a case we specify terms, goods to be supplied, the quantity of each good, the period of supply of goods in the contract once. Then we do not repeat our offer daily and the supplier supplies the goods to us periodically. Such types of offer are called Standing Offer. They are open for a period of the contract.

In Perclval Ltd. v. London County Council Asylums and Mental deficiency Committee, (1918) 87 LJKB 677 case, the plaintiffs advertised for tenders for the supply of stores. The defendant made a tender to the effect that he undertook to supply the company for twelve months with such quantities of special articles as the company may order from time to time. The Company, by a letter accepted the tender and subsequently gave various orders which were executed by the defendant. Ultimately the Company gave an order for goods within the schedule, which the defendant refused to supply. The Court held that the Tender was a standing offer that was to be converted into a series of contracts by the subsequent acts of the company and that an order prevented pro tanto the possibility of revocation, hence the company succeeded in an action for breach of contract. 

In Bangal Coal Co. Ltd. v. Homee Wadia & Co. (1899) L Bom. 97 case the defendants entered into a contract to supply coal as and when required for a period of twelve months at an agreed rate. The plaintiff placed certain orders, and the defendants supplied the coal but before 12 months have lapsed, the defendants withdraw their offer. The plaintiff then sued the defendants for breach of contract. Dismissing the suit the Court held that there was no contract at all therefore, there is no question of breach of contract. The Court point out that it was only standing offer and contract comes into existence when acceptance is made by placing an order, before this step either party can withdraw, but once order is placed they cannot revoked.

In Union of India v. Madala Thathiah, (1964) 3, S.C.R. 774 case, the Supreme Court of India held that the standing offer may be revoked at any time, provided that it has not accepted in the legal sense, and acceptance in legal sense is complete as a requisition or a definite quantity of goods is made. Each requisition by offeree is an individual act of acceptance which creates a separate contract.

Conclusion:

The Indian Contract act doesn’t specifically mention the different types of offers. It talks of express and implied offers only. But as ours is a common law country, we develop law from the decisions held by Indian and British courts. As an offer is the first step in the formulation of a contract, it is essential to distinguish what type of offer has been made by the offeror, as different types of offers have different types of legal rules being applied to them.

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In contract proposal and acceptance of proposal are important ingredient. In this article, we shall discuss proposal in details.

Section 2(h) of the Indian Contract Act , 1872, defines the term ‘Contract’ as “An agreement enforceable by law is a contract.” Section 2(e) of the Act defines the term “agreement’ as “Every promise and every set of promises, forming the consideration for each other, is an agreement.”

Thus, Contract = Offer from offeror (Promisor) + Free consent from another party (Offeree / Promisee) + Legal consideration + Legal enforceability.

Thus, proposal is main ingredient of a valid contract. The term “proposal” of the Indian Contract Act is synonymous to the term “Offer” in English law. Section 2(a)of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines proposal as “when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal”. The person making proposal/offer is called the proposer/offeror and the person to which the proposal is made is called propose or offeree.

Illustration: If A tells B “he is interested in buying his (B’s) car for ₹ 2 lakh. Will, you sell the car to me?”. Here, with information, there is a consideration (₹ 2 lakhs) and expectation of agreement from B. Thus this is a proposal.

In Bank of India v. O. P. Swaranakar, AIR 2003 SC 858 case, the Court held that a proposal is made when one person signifies to another his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of the other to such act or abstinence.

In Balram Gupta v. Union of India, AIR 1987 SC 2354 case, the Court held that a person can withdraw or modify his offer or tender before communication of acceptance is complete as against him, that is before its acceptance is intimated to him.

Essential Elements of an Offer / A Proposal:

• There must be two parties.
• The offer must be communicated to the offeree.
• The offer must show the willingness of offeror. i.e. the terms of offer must be clear and it is made with the intention that it should be binding.
• The offer must be made with a view to obtaining the assent of the offeree.
• An offer may involve a positive act or abstinence by the offeree.
• A mere expression of willingness or expression made jokingly or desire does not constitute an offer.

Example: A tells B’ that he desires to marry by the end of 2018, it does not constitute an offer of marriage by ‘A’ to ‘B’ because there is no expectation of acceptance from B. If he further adds “will you marry me?” to the previous expression. Then it becomes an offer.

There must be minimum two parties in a contract.

A party to a contract is one who holds the obligations and receives the benefits of a legally binding agreement. When two parties enter into an agreement, there are two distinct roles each play: the promisor and the promisee. The promisor is the party that makes the promise, while the promisee is on the receiving end of the promise.

Offer must be communicated to the offeree.

The offer is completed only when it has been communicated to the offeree. Until the offer is communicated, it cannot be accepted. Thus, an offer accepted without its knowledge does not confer any legal rights on the acceptor.

In Lalman Shukla v. Gauri Datt (1913) All LJ 489 case A’s nephew has absconded from his home. He sent his servant to trace his missing
nephew. When the servant had left, A then announced that anybody who has discovered the missing boy would be given the reward of Rs.500. The servant discovered the missing boy without knowing the reward. When the servant came to know about the reward, he asked for the same from A. A refused to give the reward. The servant brought an action against A in the court of law to recover the same. But the court held that when the servant discovered the boy, he was not aware of the reward. Thus the offer was not communicated to him. Hence he is not liable to get the reward from A.

In Powell v. Lee (1908 24 TLR 606) case the plaintiff Powell applied for the post of a headmaster and his application was accepted by the School Board. Before the formal appointment, one of the Board members had informed Powell of the decision which was later rescinded by the Board. Powell sued the School for breach of contract.  The court held that the acceptance was not communicated by someone authorized by the School Board and thus there was no valid contract.

In Taylor v. Laird (25 L.J. Ex. 329) case, the plaintiff was employed as the captain of a ship which was owned by the defendant. Whilst in a foreign port during the course of the voyage, he voluntarily gave up his position as a captain and worked as an ordinary crew member during his passage back to Britain. The defendant was not made aware of this change of position. Upon his return, he sought to claim wages from the defendant for his work as a crew member during this journey. The court held that the plaintiff has not communicated his offer to work as a crew to the defendant and hence he had not entered into any contractual agreement with the defendant for the performance of his work as an ordinary crew member.  hence the plaintiff is not entitled to wages for the return journey.

The offer must be certain definite and not vague or unambiguous.

There must be no confusion about the terms used in an offer. Both offeror and offeree should understand one and the same thing from the offer. The terms of offer must be clear and it is made with the intention that it should be binding.

Example: A offered to sell to B, ‘a hundred tons of oil’. We can see that the offer is not specifying which type of oil (groundnut or sunflower or sesame, or rice bran, etc.) A want to sell to B. Thus the offer is vague, ambiguous, and uncertain. Hence it is not an offer.

There must be the intention that the offer should be binding

In Jones v Padavatton, [1968] EWCA Civ 4 case, Mrs. Violet Laglee Jones, the mother had asked her daughter, Mrs Padavatton to leave her job in the United States and come to the UK to study for the bar. The mother had further promised maintenance of 200 dollars per week. On this basis, the daughter in November 1962 came to the UK and started her education. The allowance agreed was insufficient for Mrs Padavatton. In 1964 the mother bought a house and varied the agreement by giving the daughter a part of the house to stay and a part to rent so as to cover her expenses and her maintenance. Mrs Padavatton failed to clear bar exam. In 1967 the parties had an argument and as a consequence, the mother brought an action for the possession of the house. The mother based her claim on the allegation that the agreement was not made with the intention of creating a legal relationship. The issues themselves primarily revolve around the validity of the contract and the intention to create a legally binding relationship. The Court held that there cannot be a legally valid contract if there was no intention to form one in the first place and there is a strong possibility that members of a family do not intend to get into legally binding agreements and the Court handed over possession of house to Mrs. Jones.

The offer must be capable of creating a legal relation. 

An offer in order to give rise to a contract must be intended to create and be capable of creating legal relations. A social relation (moral or matrimonial or religious or friendly) do not create legal relations.

‘A’ invited ‘B’ to dinner and ‘B’ accepted the invitation. It is a mere social invitation. And A will not be liable if he fails to provide dinner to B.

In Balfour v. Balfour (1919 2 K.B. 571) case Mr. Balfour is the Defendant and Mrs. Balfour is the Plaintiff. The couple lived in Ceylon (Now Shrilanka) and visited England on a vacation. The plaintiff remained in England for medical treatment. The defendant has agreed to send her a specific amount of money each month until she could return. The defendant failed to honour the promise. Mrs. Balfour sued for restitution of her conjugal rights and for alimony equal to the amount her husband had agreed to send. The lower court entered judgment in favor of the plaintiff and held that the defendant’s promise to send money was enforceable. The court held that Mrs. Balfour’s consent was sufficient consideration to render the contract enforceable and the defendant appealed.  The Higher Court held that the agreement between husband and wife is of social nature and cannot be enforceable by law. Hence Mr. Balfour is not liable for honouring the agreement. By this case law, all social agreements are not enforceable by the law. This judgment is considered a Landmark judgment.

In Rose & Frank Co. v. Crompton & Bros. Ltd, 1923(2) KB 261 case, when companies entered into an agreement about the exchange and purchase of toilet paper at a certain price. The agreement made between both the companies stated that “This agreement is not entered into nor is the memorandum written as a formal or legal agreement and shall not be subject to legal jurisdiction in the law courts”. The Court held the agreement void since the contract does not give any possible legal consequences.

Offer may be express and implied.

An offer which is expressed by words, written or spoken, is called an express offer. The offer which is expressed by the conduct is called an implied offer.

In Uptron Rural District Council v. Powell, 1942 1 All ER 220 case, the defendant has asked the plaintiff to do the services as he thought they will do it for free. But as the service was not entitled to a free service zone the plaintiff demanded money for their services. It was held that the defendant desired and requested Upton’s services, according to the court, and they were given. As a result, the services were deemed to be delivered based on an implied commitment to pay.

Communication of offer should be complete.

A offered to sell his old car to B for ₹1,00,000. B replied, “I am ready to pay ₹90.000”. On A’s refusal to sell at this price, B agreed to pay ₹1,00,0000. Now A is not bound to sell his car to B at ₹ 1,00,000. Initial offer to sell the car for ₹ 1,00,000 was made by A. B rejected the offer by giving a counter-offer to buy the car at ₹ 90,000. A refused this counter-offer. Now again B is giving a new offer to A to buy the car at ₹ 10,000. Thus as offeree, he has the right to accept or reject the new offer by B. Note that a counter-offer amounts to a rejection of the original offer.

In Tinn v. Hoffman & Co., (1873) 29 LT 271 case, the defendant wrote to the plaintiff offering to sell a certain quantity of iron at a certain price. On the same day without knowledge the plaintiff wrote to the defendant that he want to buy the same quantity of iron at the same price. The letters crossed in the Post. The plaintiff contended that there was a concluded contract. But the Court held that the defendant were not liable by the simultaneous offers, each made in ignorance of the other. Blackburn J. said “when contract is made between two parties, there is a promise by one in consideration of the promise made by the other, there are two assenting mind, the parties agreeing in opinion and one having promises in consideration of the promise made by the other- there is exchange of promise. But I do not think exchanging offers would , upon the principle, be at all the same thing.”

Mere Intention is not enough.

A statement of intention made during a conversation will not constitute an offer, even though acted upon by the party to whom it is made.

In Weeks v. Tybaid (1905 Noy. 11) case the defendant announced he would give £100 to a man who would marry his daughter with his consent. The plaintiff married with defendant’s daughter with the consent of the plaintiff. After the marriage, the plaintiff asked for the money but the defendant refused to pay the same. The plaintiff sued him in the court of law. The Court held this was a mere puff and in the context not to be taken with seriousness because the words were spoken to entire suitors of his daughter.

An offer must not thrust the burden of acceptance on the offeree.

A person cannot say that, if within a certain time, acceptance is not communicated, the offer would be considered as accepted.

The acceptance to offer cannot be presumed from silence.

When A makes an offer to the B, and there is no communication from B about the acceptance of the offer, then A cannot assume that the offer has been accepted by B. Failing to reply to an offer is not acceptance in most cases. This is true even if the offer says silence will be considered acceptance.

‘A’ offers to paint B’s house for $100. If B does not respond to A’s offer, there is no acceptance. If, however, A specifically state to B that, “If I do not hear anything from you by Friday, I will assume you agree to my offer. You reply,” In this case the silence become acceptance on Friday.

In Felthouse v Bindley, (1862) EWHC CP J35 case, the complainant, Paul Felthouse, had a conversation with his nephew, John Felthouse, about buying his horse. After their discussion, the uncle replied by letter stating that if he didn’t hear anymore from his nephew concerning the horse, he would consider acceptance of the order done and he would own the horse. His nephew did not reply to this letter and was busy at auctions. The defendant, Mr Bindley, ran the auctions and the nephew advised him not to sell the horse. However, by accident he ended up selling the horse to someone else. The Court held that there was no contract for the horse between the complainant and his nephew. There had not been an acceptance of the offer; silence did not amount to acceptance and an obligation cannot be imposed by another. Any acceptance of an offer must be communicated clearly. Although the nephew had intended to sell the horse to the complainant and showed this interest, there was no contract of sale. Thus, the nephew’s failure to respond to the complainant did not amount to an acceptance of his offer.

Offer must be distinguished from an invitation to offer.

When a person expresses something to another person, to invite him to make an offer, it is known as an invitation to offer. The objective of the invitation of the offer is to receive offers from people and negotiate the terms on which the contract will be created. In invitation offer, the persons responding to it are making offers.

The menu card of a restaurant is an invitation to put an offer. Price – tags attached to the goods displayed in any showroom or supermarket is also an invitation to offer. If the salesman or the cashier does not accept the price, the interested buyer cannot compel him to sell, if he wants to buy it, he must make a proposal. Other examples of invitation to offer are vacancy job advertisements, auction advertisement, and tender advertisement.

In the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain v. Boots Cash Chemists (Southern) Ltd, 1952 2 QB 795 case, the court held that in invitation to offer, it was an offer to buy, and no sale would take place until the buyers offer is accepted at the price offered.

The offeror should have the intention to obtain the consent of the offeree.

The offeror must give an offer to offeree with intention of getting consent. The statement like “Marry with me or go to hell” is not an offer.

In Tinn v. Hoffman & Co., (1873) 29 LT 271 case, the defendant wrote to the plaintiff offering to sell a certain quantity of iron at a certain price. On the same day the plaintiff wrote to the defendant that he want to buy the same quantity of iron at the same price. The letters crossed in the Post. The plaintiff contended that there was a concluded contract. But the Court held that the defendant were not liable by the simultaneous offers, each made in ignorance of the other. In these case there was intention to obtain the consent of the offeree. But actual consent or acceptance was not there.

An answer to a question is not an offer.

Conclusion:

In contract law, proposal (offer) and acceptance analysis is a basic process for determining whether two parties have achieved an agreement. A proposal or an offer is a declaration made by one person to another that they are willing to engage in a contract on specific terms without further negotiation. A contract is considered to exist when the offeree conveys his or her acceptance of an offer to the offeror. An offer’s communication is full when the person to whom the offer is made is aware of it, and an acceptance’s communication is full when the acceptance is placed in a transmission channel to the offeror. To establish a binding contract, a proposal can be revoked at any time until final acceptance is given to the proposer.

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